Chiragh Ali: First Indian Muslim Scholar To Refute In 1886 The Popular Concept Of Jihad As Qital

By Grace Mubashir,  New Age Islam

10 May 2024

"A Critical Exposition Of The Popular 'Jihad'" By Chiragh Ali Is A Seminal Work That Critically Examines The Concept Of Jihad Within The Islamic Tradition. Published In 1885, The Book Challenges Prevailing Interpretations Of Jihad As Aggressive Warfare And Instead Argues For A Defensive Understanding Based On Quranic Principles. Chiragh Ali Meticulously Analyses Quranic Verses And Historical Accounts To Demonstrate That The Prophet Muhammad’s Wars Were Defensive In Nature, Undertaken Only In Response To Persecution And Oppression. His Thesis, Asserting That Jihad Should Be Understood As A Struggle For Justice Rather Than Conquest, Sparked Both Admiration And Controversy Among Muslim Scholars And Intellectuals Of His Time. Chiragh Ali's Work Remains Influential In Shaping Discussions On Jihad And Islamic Ethics Within The Context Of Modernity And Continues To Be Studied And Debated By Scholars Of Islam.

Main Points:

1.           During the early 1870s, Chiragh ‘Ali crossed paths with Sayyid Ahmad Khan, who was leading the movement for modern, scientific education centred in Aligarh.

2.           Chiragh ‘Ali was a prolific writer, commencing his publications as early as 1871. Among his most notable works in English are "The Proposed Political, Legal, and Social Reforms in the Ottoman Empire" and "A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihad'".

3.           His modernist perspective led him to critique the historical trajectory of Islam, believing that Muslims had deviated from the ideal religion outlined in the Qur’an. His critical examination of classical Islamic jurisprudence often put him at odds with traditional scholars.

4.           His thesis, asserting that jihad should be understood as a struggle for justice rather than conquest, sparked both admiration and controversy among Muslim scholars and intellectuals of his time.

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Chiragh ‘Ali, a prominent member of Sayyid Ahmad’s circle, emerged as a critical re-examiner of classical Islamic jurisprudence on jihad. He served as a civil servant in Hyderabad state during the 1880s, a period marked by the dominance of British authorities over the Nizam’s dominion, despite its semiautonomous status.

Hailing from a family with Kashmiri roots, Chiragh ‘Ali's grandfather had migrated to Punjab and then to the United Provinces in the early nineteenth century. His father, Muhammad Bakhsh (c. 1821–1856), was born and raised in the United Provinces. Bakhsh, equipped with the rare skill of English proficiency during that era, secured employment as a clerk in the district administration of Saharanpur.

Chiragh ‘Ali, born in 1844, was the eldest of Muhammad Bakhsh’s four sons and received his education primarily at home, under the guidance of his parents and grandmother. While there is no record of any additional formal education he may have received, his proficiency in Urdu, Persian, and English enabled him to secure a position as a subordinate clerk in the district treasury in Basti. This initial role paved the way for his advancement to the position of deputy Munsarim, or junior land settlement officer, in Lucknow’s Court of the Judicial Commissioner in 1872, at the age of twenty-eight.

During the early 1870s, Chiragh ‘Ali crossed paths with Sayyid Ahmad Khan, who was leading the movement for modern, scientific education centred in Aligarh. This initiative would eventually lead to the establishment of the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) in 1875. Recognizing Chiragh ‘Ali's intelligence and capabilities, Sayyid Ahmad entrusted him with a translation project funded by the authorities of Hyderabad state. Impressed by Chiragh ‘Ali’s successful completion of the project, Sayyid Ahmad recommended him to Salar Jang I, the prime minister of Hyderabad, for a high-ranking position within the Nizam’s administration.

Accepting the offer of the prestigious post of assistant to the commissioner of revenue, Chiragh ‘Ali arrived in Hyderabad in 1876. This marked his entry into an esteemed circle associated with the Aligarh movement, which aimed to modernize Hyderabad’s bureaucracy and finances in collaboration with Sayyid Ahmad and Salar Jang I. Among the prominent figures in this group were Muhsin al-Mulk, Wiqar al-Mulk, “Deputy” Nazir Ahmad, Sayyid Husayn Bilgrami, Justice Khuda Bakhsh, and Fath Nawaz Jang.

Within a decade, Chiragh ‘Ali swiftly climbed the ranks, serving as Subedar (district commissioner) of Warangal and Gulbarga, followed by secretary to the board of revenue, a position of significant influence. In 1887, the Nizam honoured Chiragh ‘Ali with the title of ‘Nawab Azam Yar Jang’ “the brave knight in war,” during the royal birthday awards. Five years later, he attained the powerful position of secretary to the political and finance department of Hyderabad, where he served until his untimely death in 1895 at the age of fifty-one.

A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihad'

Chiragh ‘Ali was a prolific writer, commencing his publications as early as 1871. Among his most notable works in English are "The Proposed Political, Legal, and Social Reforms in the Ottoman Empire" and "A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihad'". He also authored significant works on Hyderabad’s economic and administrative history, including "Hyderabad (Deccan) under Sir Salar Jung" and "History of Some of the Important Jagirs". Additionally, as secretary to the board of revenue, he introduced the practice of preparing and publishing the state budget, a novel undertaking at the time.

Despite the demands of his bureaucratic positions, Chiragh ‘Ali remained devoted to scholarly pursuits. He was known for his extensive reading habits, indulging in books during various daily activities. Unlike many of his bureaucratic peers, Chiragh ‘Ali exhibited a remarkable intellectual curiosity and self-education, mastering multiple languages and engaging in comparative religious studies, a field largely overlooked by Muslim scholars of his time.

While some scholars studied other religions to refute them in polemical debates, Chiragh ‘Ali took a different approach. He delved into the Old and New Testaments and explored Christian theology not to challenge Christian teachings, but to seek commonalities between the Bible and the Qur’an. Upon his passing, the Asafiyya State Central Library in Hyderabad acquired his extensive book collection. Unfortunately, due to neglect, most of these books are now in a state of disrepair.

Despite never travelling abroad, Chiragh ‘Ali's writings were influenced by modernist trends from various parts of Dar al-Islam. In an 1880 article, he referenced works by Egyptian traveller and educator Rifa‘a Rafi al-Tahtawi, Sayf Efendi of Beirut, Tunisian modernist Khayr al-Din Pasha, and Syrian journalist Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq. His modernist perspective led him to critique the historical trajectory of Islam, believing that Muslims had deviated from the ideal religion outlined in the Qur’an. His critical examination of classical Islamic jurisprudence often put him at odds with traditional scholars.

Chiragh ‘Ali's most controversial work, "A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihad,'" published in 1885 and dedicated to Sayyid Ahmad Khan, aimed to challenge prevailing interpretations of jihad. While he hoped to influence Indian Muslims with his writings, his primary audience included European orientalists, missionaries, and colonial officials who viewed Muslims as a threat to British rule. Chiragh ‘Ali sought to demonstrate the Islamic basis for a modernist policy of accommodation with the British, countering the notion that Muslims were inherently hostile to colonial rule. He aimed to refute the portrayal of Islam as a religion spread by coercion and to challenge the narrative of British colonialism as benevolent liberation.

Modernists like Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Chiragh ‘Ali, and Sayyid Amir ‘Ali took it upon themselves to respond to British writers such as Edward Sell, Malcolm MacColl, Samuel Green, William Muir, and William Robertson Smith. In "A Critical Exposition," Chiragh ‘Ali aimed to dispel the misconception propagated by European and Christian writers that Muhammad waged wars of conquest and forced conversions. His book frequently quotes European writers, either to support his arguments or refute theirs. His main contention was that missionaries and orientalists judged Islam based on the interpretations of Islamic law by the ulema, rather than the principles outlined in the Qur’an.

While Chiragh ‘Ali had familiarity with Jewish and Christian scriptures, he surprisingly made no references to the war traditions of other religions in "A Critical Exposition." Instead, he focused solely on correcting misconceptions about jihad and the wars fought by Muhammad. Chiragh ‘Ali argued that all of Muhammad's wars were defensive and aimed at safeguarding legitimate rights, rather than forcible conversions. He emphasized that Muhammad only resorted to force when peaceful negotiations failed.

To support his argument, Chiragh ‘Ali highlighted the oppression faced by Muhammad and his followers at the hands of the Quraysh in Mecca. He described the torture endured by early Muslims and the personal targeting of the Prophet by the Quraysh. Despite enduring persecution with patience, Muhammad and his followers eventually emigrated to Medina to ensure their safety. However, even after the migration, the Quraysh continued their oppression, banning the emigrants from visiting Mecca for pilgrimage.

Chiragh ‘Ali argues that the Prophet Muhammad refrained from initiating war against his enemies unless circumstances forced him to do so. He asserts that each of the Prophet's involvements in battles had its own justification, and Muhammad took up the sword reluctantly and under compulsion.

For Chiragh ‘Ali, the Quran provides ample evidence of the defensive nature of the Prophet's wars. He quotes verses such as 2:189 (193), 8:40 (39), and 9:5 to demonstrate that the Quran does not teach Muslims to fight non-Muslims without provocation. Regarding the controversial "sword verse" (Quran 9:5), Chiragh ‘Ali interprets it in the context of the verses preceding and following it, suggesting that it was revealed in response to Mecca's breach of the Treaty of Hudaybiya and attack on Muslim allies. He argues that these injunctions were not carried out because Mecca came under Muslim control without a fight.

Similarly, Chiragh ‘Ali analyses verses like 2:189 (193) and 8:40 (39), emphasizing their defensive nature when considered in conjunction with other Quranic passages. He interprets the word "Fitna" (persecution or civil strife) in these verses as referring to the aggressive activities of the Quraysh. Therefore, he concludes that God commands war only in response to violence and oppression, and only until the persecution ceases.

In addition to the Quran, Chiragh ‘Ali points to historical accounts of Muhammad's military campaigns to support his argument that the Prophet fought only in self-defence. Chiragh ‘Ali criticizes both Muslim and European biographers of Muhammad for inflating the number of expeditions that occurred during the Prophet’s lifetime. He argues that many of these "expeditions" were nonviolent activities such as diplomatic missions or reconnaissance missions, and he reduces the number of actual battles to only five: Badr, Uhud, Ahzab, Khyber, and Hunain. He dismisses these battles as minor skirmishes with limited military significance.

His review of the Prophet’s battles aims to refute European historians who portrayed Muhammad as the aggressor. For example, regarding the battle of Badr, Chiragh ‘Ali argues that the Prophet only left Medina after the Quraysh left Mecca with the intention of attacking Medina. He disputes the notion that the Quraysh left Mecca to defend a caravan, asserting instead that the battle of Badr was fought in self-defence.

Chiragh ‘Ali’s thesis that all battles of the Prophetic era were defensive forms the basis of his argument that the only permissible motive for jihad is self-defence. He contends that the Quran does not mandate Muslims to wage war against unbelievers to impose Islam. Instead, he interprets the root j-h-d and its derivatives in the Quran as meaning "to strive" or "to exert effort," without implying religious warfare. He maintains that this understanding of jihad was consistent with pre-Islamic Arab usage and was widely accepted among Indian Muslims.

Chiragh ‘Ali challenges the later interpretation of jihad as a religious war by examining the Medinan verses of the Quran. He argues that when these verses are considered in context, the term j-h-d can be understood as "striving" or "toiling," rather than warfare. For instance, he interprets phrases like Jāhadu Fi Sabil Allah (striving in the way of Allah) in connection with the hardships endured during the Hijra, or migration from Mecca to Medina.

While acknowledging that the Quran permits certain types of fighting, Chiragh ‘Ali contends that it does not endorse aggressive religious warfare. He highlights that only two Quranic verses (2:245 and 9:124) contain unconditional injunctions for making war against unbelievers. He argues that other verses dealing with fighting or warfare are conditional or limited in nature. According to him, when faced with both general and conditional verses on the same subject, exegetical principles dictate that the conditional should be preferred. Chiragh ‘Ali asserts that Quranic sanctions for war against unbelievers were specific to the Prophet’s time and do not apply to modern times. To support this argument, he challenges two hadiths attributed to the Prophet, often cited by proponents of perpetual jihad: "Jihad will last up to the Day of Resurrection" and "I have been enjoined to fight the people until they profess that there is no god except God." He questions the authenticity of these hadiths and argues that they contradict clear Quranic verses commanding believers to fight only in self-defence until persecution and civil discord are ended.

Conclusion

The publication of "A Critical Exposition of the Popular 'Jihad'" sparked significant controversy upon its release. While many modernist Muslim authors found inspiration in Chiragh ‘Ali’s work and produced their own writings on jihad in various languages, others, both Muslim and non-Muslim, were highly critical of it. Chiragh ‘Ali's argument that only the Quran holds normative value in determining Islamic law and ethics has become a defining feature of Muslim modernism.

However, critics such as Dutch Reformed minister Herman T. Obbink and some Muslim scholars argued that Chiragh ‘Ali’s views diverged significantly from mainstream Islamic tradition as articulated by classical Muslim scholars. They viewed his perspective as out of step with established interpretations of Islamic doctrine.

For instance, scholar Mustansir Mir criticized Chiragh ‘Ali as an apologist attempting to equate Islam with pacifism, suggesting that his writings lacked substantive merit. In response to such criticism, Ayesha Jalal emphasized the importance of understanding the historical context in which Chiragh ‘Ali and other reformers wrote. She argued that their defence of Islam was a response to the aggressive attacks by Christian authors, and thus should not be judged solely by contemporary critical standards. Instead, their work should be viewed within the framework of the challenges they faced in their time.

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A regular columnist for NewAgeIslam.com, Mubashir V.P is a PhD scholar in Islamic Studies at Jamia Millia Islamia and freelance journalist.

 

URL:     https://www.newageislam.com/books-documents/chiragh-indian-muslim-scholar-jihad-qital/d/132291

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