Were Mappilas Fanatics: Major Anti-Colonial Literature of Malabar Repudiate This Fallacy

By Grace Mubashir, New Age Islam

3 August 2023

Malabar coast was at the forefront of the anti-colonial struggle. It began against the Portuguese and continued against Dutch savage colonialists. The zeal incited the Muslims of the region to fight against Tippu and Hyder Ali and later the British Empire. These struggles were freedom and against social and economic exploitation by colonial forces. The scholars and their writings were the source of inspiration against the colonial powers.  But Mappila's resistance against the British and their prop feudal lords have been blemished as communal fanaticism. These literatures reveal a streak of resistance against colonial forces and love towards the mother country.

 

Mappila rebels captured after a battle with British colonial troops in 1921. Photo: Wikimedia Commons

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The saying that human nature changes with time is very relevant. Because over time, the rulers are changing the system of governance for the benefit of some particular organization or individual. As a democracy, the people elect a ruler for the people to ensure the rights and freedoms of every citizen. But many are in the habit of inciting rights destruction and religious hatred. An example of this is the removal of the names of seventy-seven Mappila freedom fighters, including martyrs Warian Kunnath and Ali Musliar, who fought against the British occupation, from the freedom fighters’ dictionary.

It is said that there were three skirmishes with the Mappilas in the first years of British rule. The Joint Commissioners of Malabar have reported this. The leaders of the first rebellions, which are said to have started in 1792 and ended in 1805, were not just Muslims. Hindu leaders like Kunhiachan and Zamothiri of Palakkad and Tampuran of Kovilakam in the west were at the forefront of the rebellion along with Unnimussa Muppan, Chempan Poker, Atan Kurukkal and Hydros.

The prince of the Kovilakam received a pension of ten thousand and made peace with the British. Kunhiyachan died in prison. Unnimussa was a good warrior and diplomat, he even waged a clandestine war. With the arrival of Raja Pazassi, the riots took on the character of covert warfare. Chempan Poker was martyred and Unni Mussa fell wounded. King Pazhassi hugged him with tears in his eyes as he said his last farewell. All this is evident from the secular attitude that was evident in the rioters.

In 1809, Veluthampi Dalawa, who rose against the British, rocked Travancore with his declaration of rebellion. There were many Muslims in Dalawa's army. The British chiefs won the battles fought in Kollam and Kochi. In 1812, the British also won the rebellion of Kurichyars and Kurumbas in Malabar against the levying of heavy taxes. An armed police force was formed and stationed in the northern parts of Malabar to crush the resistance. Although they tried to appease the Muslims, the Mappila did not yield.

Many people were killed in fights with the British in 1815 and 1836. In November 1847, the authorities gathered the bodies of those killed and prepared to set them on fire, inciting religious sentiments. About 2,000 locals resisted the police and buried the bodies. Following this, 125 of the leaders were deported to Andaman. There were conflicts in Pantallur in 1836, Pallipuram in 1841, Kulathur in 1851 and 1873, Melathur in 1880, Malappuram Keermuri in 1884, Pandikat in 1889, Chembrassery and Mancheri in 1894, Mancheri and Payyanur in 1898.

The Mancheri rebellion of 1849 was led by another Athankurukal. How cruelly and even the corpses were treated is shown by the words of Major Dess's report, submitted on September 5, 1849: ‘In half an hour the enemy was routed. 64 people were among those killed. Apart from being stabbed with bayonets, their bodies were lying side by side with four or five bullet holes on display. The bodies were dumped in a large tank in a garden at Kicheri in Perinthalmanna in southern Valluvanad.’

Such brutal actions further enraged the Mappilas. Condemning these and glorifying the bravery of the martyrs, Haji and his colleagues were arrested on charges of 'inciting the freedom struggle in North India (the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857)' which had been circulated by Poovwatan Kunjappa Haji and his colleagues at Ponmala. Some of the Malabar officials were arrested as suspects and smuggled out of the country and propaganda related to the struggle was banned.

In the 19th century, even Umar Khadi's protest against tax at Veliyamkot had clarified the secular mindset of Muslims. This is what Umar Khadi called upon the people when he was arrested, declaring that it is my duty as a Muslim and as an Indian to resist violent taxation. ‘My Muslim and non-Muslim brothers, we are all servants of God. Islam is a religion of peace. You shall not riot and attack in my name. Jail is a blessing', he pleaded with the locals.

In February 1852 Syed Fazal Pookoya of Tirurangadi exiled himself and his family for having inspired the rebellion due to the intrigues of the British. He later served as governor and adviser to the Turkish Caliphate in Yemen. Then the British authorities were ready to praise him shamelessly. In 1852 and 1859 the Mappila Register Act was passed. According to this rule, the number of Kathi (small knives) collected from the Collector Connolly Malappuram taluk (in proportion to the population) of Hindus and Muslims was equal. In other taluks, more Hindus were in possession.

Many maples were exported in 1857-1858. The Agrarian Revolt of 1880 paralyzed the English Government in Malabar. The South Kuttur Mutiny of 1844 was a day and a night of constant fighting against the White Army. In the same year, there was a clash at Kilunneri in Malappuram. Thirty-two Mappilas were lined up in Pandikkad and 17 were shot dead in Ponnani the following year. In 1894 and 1896, Police Superintendent Fawcett revealed that three and thirty-six people were charged within a year in Ponnani Valluvanad Taluk alone due to clashes at Mannarkkad. Riots were planted in 1915 and 1919. Logan's Manual of Malabar (1887), who held various posts in Malabar for twenty-one years, truthfully revealed the undercurrents of the rebellions.

Malabar Rebellion of 1921 was the tragic culmination of long pent-up resentment against the British. Holding the head of the Chekutty Inspector, Warian Kunnath Kunjammadhaji, leader of the revolt, gave a call: 'Don't play with the government, don't play with the natives, don't kill the Hindus, don't fight with them, don't convert them against their will if you harm the Hindus, they will join the government's role'. This clearly illustrates the attitude of the rioters. It is said that the leader of the rioters, Warian Kunnat Kunhammad Haji, administered justice by giving severe punishment to those who harassed and looted the Hindus.

Coupled with the harsh repression unleashed by the British Government and the Congress leadership's political policy of rejecting all forms of violence, the rioters' thinking was dominated by blind religious fervour and examples of innocent Hindus being killed are rare. The conflict that occurred in 1896 is proof of this. Hundreds of unarmed Hindus could have been killed with ease. But only two or three notorious and hated natives were killed. Then the rebels waited for the arrival of the British soldiers. They had made no cover. They were shot at 700, 800 yards afar and fell to the ground dead.

In short, the Mappila warriors are great heroes who fought to free Kerala from the British who took the initiative to establish dominance by crossing the sea. The blood they shed is the freedom we enjoy. All riots are perfectly justified. Why is the central government's anti-democratic move a topic of discussion? The following discussion on six major anti-colonial literature will reveal the agrarian foundations of resentment.

1.       Tahridu Ahlul Iman Ala Jihadi Abdat Sulban

Tahridu Ahlul Iman Ala Jihadi Abdat Sulban  (Inciting Believers Against The Worshippers Of Cross) gave the philosophical and practical leadership to organize under Zamorin, whose strength was waning in the continuous warfare against Portuguese. Born in Kochi in 1467 and died in Ponnani in 1521, Shaikhul Islam Abu Yahya Zainuddin bin Ali alias Zainuddin Makhdoom was the first who inspired the Muslims to fight vigorously against the Parangis (Portuguese) by composing a revolutionary poem entitled 'Tahridu Ahl al-Imani Ala Jihadi Abdu Sulban', which means "Fight the Cross Worshippers, O Believers".

'Cross worshipers' in the title is about the violent and oppressive Portuguese invading force. The 135-line work in Arabic contains exhortations about the plight of the community and exhortations about the religious obligation to defeat the Portuguese in armed conflict and deliver them. Many copies of this work were written and sent to Muslim localities in different parts of the country.

This work may have inspired Kunjali Marakars and their followers who came from Kochi to Kozhikode to help the Zamorin in a fierce armed struggle against the Portuguese in 1524. (Especially because the birthplace of the author and Kunjali Marakar is Kochi.)

Written in Arabic, this work is considered the first anti-colonial work in India. Due to its popularity, the Portuguese force spared no attempts to burn copies of the poem.

2.       Tuhfatul Mujahideen Fi Akhbari Al Burtugaliyeen

Zainuddin Makhdoom II, the grandson of Zainuddin Makhdoom I, wrote this book after more than 80 years of Portuguese rule. The author himself clarifies in the preface that the purpose of the writing is to make Muslims ready to fight against the Portuguese.

Zainuddin II was born in Chombal (Kannur) in 1532 as the third son of Shaikh Zainuddin Makhdoom I, a prominent scholar. He was a guru, mentor and leader in all areas of Kerala Muslims who gained knowledge in various sciences from Ponnani, which was the centre of religious knowledge in Kerala at that time, and later from prominent scholars in Makka. His books on various subjects have been published several times in countries like Egypt, Singapore, Java and Malaysia. Of these, Tuhfatul Mujahideen is the most popular of his works. The first edition in Arabic was from Lisbon, Portugal. Then Portuguese, Latin, French and other vernacular languages of South India.

This is called by many as a sourcebook of struggle against European colonial history. It also is the oldest historical book in Kerala. It details the history of Kerala, on the arrival of Islam in Kerala through Malik ibn Dinar and the accompanying merchant caravan and the establishment of local Muslim communities headed by the jurists (qadi) in various settlements from Tuticorin in the south to expounds the extent of good relations between the Zamorins of Calicut and between the Muslims. It traces the socio-cultural decay of the Muslim community and the consequential Portuguese piracy and occupation in Malabar. It prays for the prosperity of the Zamorins and exhorts for the struggle (jihad) of Muslims under the banner of the Zamorins of Calicut, against the Portuguese.

Completed in 1583, the Tuhfat al-Mujāhidīn fī ba’d a wāl al-Burtuġāliyyīn (“gift to the warriors of faith about some of the deeds of the Portuguese”) by Shaykh Zayn al-Dīn is a text of enormous propaganda value dedicated to the sultan Alī Ādil-Shāh of Bijāpūr (r. 1557-1580) and intended to denounce the war waged by the State of India (Estado da Índia) against the Muslim community of the Indian sub-continent, in particular the inhabitants of Malabar. Just as the author explains in his introductory text, the work is divided into four parts—the first dedicated to the theorization of the holy war against the Infidel (jihad), the second to the history of the expansion of the Muslim religion in Malabar, the third to describing the customs of the Hindu population, and the fourth (consisting of fourteen chapters) dedicated to telling the history of the Portuguese in Malabar, from their arrival in the late fifteenth century to the period after the loss of the fortress of Chalé (1571). Besides the work’s obvious interest—it is one of the few Asian sources testifying to the reaction of the Muslim populations to the Portuguese expansion into the southwest of India—the Tuhfat al-Mujāhidīn is a text of great importance because it recounts the origins of the Mappila community (Indian Muslims of Arab origin) in the region.

3.       Fathul Mubeen (Clear Victory)

Fathul Mubeen is a valuable and historically significant work of Qadi Muhammad Bin Abdul Aziz who lived in Calicut during the Portuguese period and contributed about five hundred prose and verse works to war literature. Muhyuddin Mala, an Arabic Malayalam composition by Khadi Muhammad, is very familiar to Kerala society.

Like Zainuddin Makhdoom, Qadi Muhammad was a first-hand witness of Portuguese atrocities. He has fought with swords in battles. The following are the reasons why he named his famous work ‘Al Fathul Mubeen’ composed in connection with the conquest of the fort of Chaliam by the Zamorin and his Hindu Nayar troop.

Tuhfatul Mujahideen Part 4 Chapter 13 deals with the conquest of Chaliam Fort. Discovering the importance of Chaliam in the military and trade areas, the Portuguese leader Diogodasiel Vira took the initiative to build a Portuguese fort thereby persuading the Zamorin through the king of Tanur. Challiam was best suited to attack and learn the dynamics of trade between Calicut and Arabia. Hence the fall of Chaliam Fort was a great blow to the Portuguese and a great relief to the Zamorin and the Muslims. That is why the poet describes it as a clear victory.

In addition, the Portuguese who came in to destroy the Muslim trade relations in the world to settle the enmity of the Crusades were a global problem for the Muslims. Because of that, the Zamorin and the Muslims expected global Muslim support. Correspondence was maintained with various kings under the leadership of Zainuddin Makhdoom. But Makhdoom records in Tuhfa that it had little effect.

Neither the Muslim Sultans nor the princes, who abounded in many parts of the world with military and economic power and glory, came forward to rescue the Malabar Muslims from the danger. The reason is that those sultans and princes are less interested in religious affairs, according to the author. Amazingly, the fort was conquered by Zamorin and Muslims virtually unaided by outside forces. This is another reason why it has been described as a clear success.

This historical poem written in Arabic based on the incident where the Hindu Nair army and the Muslim army under the leadership of Zamorin fought and won by displaying extraordinary valour and bravery. Zamorin is praised and his gifts are enumerated in this historical poem.

And kings who were Muslims

Without fighting for the Muslims

He made peace with the infidels

When we spend time holding hands

For Islam and Hinduism

Will fight as needed

Listen to the Samuthiri's (Zamorin) war story

Always pray for peace

Meet Hindu, the king

Learn your lesson, Sultans

 

Apart from the Chaliam incident, it also sheds light on important events in the history of Kerala. While Zainuddin Makhdoom took many pages to praise Sultan Adil Shah of Bijapur, he insulted Qadi Muhammad Sultan of Gujarat and described his position as treachery,

4.       As-Sayful Bathar

As-Sayful Bathar is a short work in which Mampuram Sayyid Alavi codified his fatwas, declaring complete non-cooperation with the aggressive and oppressive British rulers and calling them for ceaseless struggle. Mampurum Tangal wrote this book after the Muttichira conflict, where feudal Janmis in collusion with the British attacked the people of Malappuram.

Copies of this work were recovered and destroyed by the English. Possession, reading and distribution of this work were strictly prohibited by the British. His son Fazal Pookoya Thangal, who was later exiled by the British, republished this work in Egypt. It is also said to be published in Istanbul in the run-up to World War I to incite global Muslims against British Empire.

Saiful Bathar was composed during the period when the Ottoman Caliphate was considered the centre of the Muslim world. This is a small work that gives enthusiasm and inspiration not only to those in Malabar but to the entire community who surrendered their land to the imperialist forces as a victim of the British invasions of that era or believing in their promises to drive the enemies out of the country.

It is also argued that this work, which circulated among the Muslim community in Malabar, was composed by Syed Abdullah Abdul Bari to help Sultan Abdul Majeed against the Russian forces. But many historians contest this argument as romantic fiction.

5.       Uddatul Umraa (Provision for Leaders)

This is a well-known work of Mamburam Syed Alavi, their son, Syed Fazal Pookoya, a scholar, rebel and fighter who was exiled to Yemen by the British. Syed Fazal is a personality who filled the gap of his father who fought his life against imperialism and colonialism and guided the people of Malabar. The infidels in the title of the book are the British who came in as aggressors and the idolaters are the natives and lords who declared their full support to the British, including Muslim feudal lords.

Fazal Thangal had completed most of the work before his exile in 1852. In 1851 the then Malabar District Collector H.V. Connolly banned Uddatul Umrah. Therefore, it must have been composed between the Mancheri Mutiny of 1849 and the Kolathur Mutiny of 1851.

It is for the ideological codes that Uddat raised to give strength to the Kolathur and Mattannur riots in the Malabar region. It was the practice of those days to copy and write the work and send it to different Mahals and mosques. The martial spirit imparted by the work, which was read publicly in the localities, encouraged the Mappilas to enter the battlefields. That is why the British government issued an order banning the work, fearing a series of far-reaching strikes.

There is also an argument that it was written in Arabian countries. Because it was printed in 1856 from Arabian countries. Then it may be a reprint of the work banned in Malabar in 1851 and released in Arabian countries in 1856. This is because the fact that Saiful Bathar, which contains 78 pages and the last chapter of the 168-page work included in this work by Fazal Thangal, was composed of Malabar is clear proof that the composition was from Malabar. The published copy from Egypt was published by Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd al-Rahman.

The very first page of the 168-page book contains the full title of the book and the information that it was authored by Fazal Thangal. The book is structured as an introduction, with nine chapters. This book is a collection of pamphlets and articles that Fazal Thangal has written and circulated many times.

This book presents to the world Muslim community a philosophical explanation based on the Holy Qur'an and the Holy Sunnah for Muslims all over the world, what are the characteristics of their enemies, what are their machinations and how should relations with them be.

6.       Muhimmatul Mu'mineen (Priorities of The Believer)

Muhimmatul Mu'mineen, written in Arabic Malayalam on 40 pages, is a document showing the active participation of Muslim religious scholars in Kerala in the anti-British rebellion. The title means 'important things that believers should know'. This is one of the many works confiscated by the British during the Malabar Revolt. It is stated on the seventh page itself that its contents support non-cooperation with the enemies of Islam, helping the survival of the Khilafat, and protecting the sanctity of Jazeerat-Arab. In this work published by Aminummantakath Parikutty Musliar, who was the Secretary of the Tanur Khilafat Committee, the topics are supported based on Quranic verses, sayings of the Prophet and quotations from the books of ancient scholars.

Through this work, a call was given to Kerala Muslims to fight against the enemy by accepting the Turkish-based Ottoman Sultan as the Caliph. "In this zaman (period), the caliph is the Ottoman sultan. It is necessary for us to oppose the enemies of the Caliph, the infidels and the Muslims, and to be ready to oppress them as much as possible. "If there are Muslim religious followers who oppose the Caliph, they should also be opposed." This is in the context of the existence at that time of a structure that unified Muslims globally and centred around the Caliphate. In 1921, the Madras Gazette announced that anyone in possession of this work would be sentenced to five years imprisonment without trial. Then the author went into hiding and later went to Makka in disguise. After his arrival there, he continued to write anti-British articles in the Arabic newspaper Umm al-Qura.

Conclusion

In light of the review of the above six works, it could be argued Islam is fundamentally a vision of peace. It is the duty of a believer to establish peace in the whole world. When unrest, violence and injustice spread in the country, it is the responsibility of the believer to adopt the means of struggle to remove them. That is why all the above authors are scholars as well as revolutionaries and heroes. These works gave command and inspiration to the indigenous communities using religious precepts to fight against foreign tyranny and violence. But the lessons for non-cooperation and defensive struggles can also be found in this work. These two are always the means of struggle of Islam.

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A regular columnist for NewAgeIslam.com, Mubashir V.P is a PhD scholar in Islamic Studies at Jamia Millia Islamia and freelance journalist.

 

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