Al-Ghazali, Reason, And the Decline of Islamic Science: A Call for Renewal
By M. Basheer Ahmed, M.D, New Age Islam
16 April 2026
For generations, Muslims have asked a difficult but necessary question: Why did Muslim-majority countries—once leaders in science, philosophy, and governance—fall behind while Western nations advanced so rapidly? The answer lies in the intellectual history of Islam: a civilization that once illuminated the world with scientific discovery but gradually turned away from the spirit of inquiry that had made it great. At the center of this shift stands one of the most influential figures in Islamic thought: Abu Hamid al-Ghazali.
The Golden Age and the Rise of Al-Ghazali
Between the 7th and 15th centuries, Muslim civilization was the world’s intellectual hub. Scholars in Baghdad, Cordoba, Cairo, and Samarkand made groundbreaking contributions to medicine, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, and philosophy, laying the foundations for the European Renaissance. Knowledge—religious and scientific alike—was revered as worship and service to humanity.
It was in this flourishing context that al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE) emerged. Born in Tus, in present-day Iran, he mastered Islamic law, theology, Qur’anic interpretation, and Aristotelian logic. His brilliance earned him a professorship at the prestigious Nizamiyyah madrasa in Baghdad. Yet at the height of his career, he experienced a profound spiritual crisis, fearing that his pursuit of knowledge was driven by ambition rather than devotion. In 1095, he left his post and spent years in spiritual retreat in Damascus, Jerusalem, and Makkah. He withdrew into retreat, producing his magnum opus, IḥyāUlūm al-Dīn (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), which revitalized Islamic spirituality and remains a cornerstone of Muslim thought.
Al-Ghazali and the Philosophical Debate
Al-Ghazali engaged deeply with the works of Ibn Sina, al-Farabi, and Greek philosophy. His Maqaṣid al-Falasifah (The Aims of the Philosophers) presented their ideas with fairness and clarity. Yet a few years later, in The Incoherence of the Philosophers, he declared certain doctrines incompatible with Islam: the eternity of the universe, God’s ignorance of particulars, and denial of bodily resurrection. For al-Ghazali, revelation was the ultimate authority, and metaphysical claims that contradicted it were unacceptable.
Importantly, al-Ghazali did not reject science itself. He valued mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. His critique targeted metaphysics, not empirical inquiry. But his emphasis on revelation over reason reshaped the intellectual climate in ways that would reverberate for centuries.
Causality and Its Consequences
Al-Ghazali’s most debated idea concerned cause and effect. Using the example of fire burning cotton, he argued that fire does not burn by its own power; rather, God directly creates both the fire and the burning. What we call “natural laws” are simply patterns God sustains and may alter at will.
While rooted in faith, this view had unintended consequences. Later scholars, wary of rational inquiry, feared that scientific reasoning might undermine belief. Over time, confidence in the consistency of nature—the very assumption science requires—was weakened. Inquiry narrowed, and theology increasingly overshadowed empirical investigation.
Faith Over Reason: A Turning Point
Asharite theologians, following Ghazali’s lead, prioritized faith over rational reasoning and regarded scientific inquiry as valuable only when it reinforced belief in God’s power. As a result, scientists could not confidently pursue their work, fearing that God’s will might unpredictably alter the outcome of their observations.
The Asharite school, supported by Seljuk rulers, became dominant. Rationalists, such as the Mutazilites, faded and finally disappeared. Independent reasoning (ijtihad) was replaced with imitation (taqlid). Intellectual curiosity waned, and religious practice became increasingly ritualistic. This shift did not occur overnight. Leaders like Nizam al-Mulk discouraged philosophical inquiry, fearing it could destabilize the caliphate.Institutions that once nurtured science ceased to exist.
The Mongol destruction of Baghdad in 1258 was catastrophic, but even in regions untouched by invasion, Asharite dominance contributed to stagnation. The Muslim world gradually lost its leadership in science and innovation.
From Leadership to Dependency
As Europe embraced the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, Muslim societies fell behind. Later empires—the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals—focused on grandeur and military strength rather than scientific progress. Observatories closed, printing was banned for centuries, and brilliant scientists like Ulugh Beg were silenced. By the 19th and 20th centuries, much of the Muslim world was colonized by Europeans and was politically and technologically dependent on Western powers. Even after independence, many nations struggled to build strong educational and research institutions, while East Asian countries Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan surged ahead through massive investment in science and technology.
Ibn Rushd: The Road Not Taken
The philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes) offered a different path. In The Incoherence of Incoherence, he argued that reason and revelation are partners, not rivals. Rational inquiry, he insisted, strengthens faith. Europe embraced his vision, influencing thinkers like Thomas Aquinas and Moses Maimonides, and laying intellectual foundations for the Renaissance. In the Muslim world, however, his rationalist approach was largely rejected. Europe inherited the rational tradition Muslims had cultivated, while Muslims retained spiritual depth but lost intellectual balance.
A Message for Today: Reviving the Spirit of Inquiry
Al-Ghazali remains one of Islam’s greatest thinkers, and his teachings on ethics and spirituality are profoundly relevant in today’s materialistic age. Yet spirituality alone cannot meet the challenges of modernity. Muslims must reclaim a balanced intellectual tradition—one that unites Ghazali’s ethical wisdom with a renewed commitment to science, mathematics, medicine, engineering, and critical reasoning.
The Qur’an repeatedly urges reflection: “Do they not reflect upon the creation of the heavens and the earth?” and “Are those who know equal to those who do not know?” The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ taught that seeking knowledge is a duty for every Muslim—not only religious knowledge, but all beneficial knowledge. Worship in Islam includes the pursuit of knowledge and service to humanity through scientific discoveries.
Today, wealthy nations often import technology rather than developing it, investing oil revenues abroad instead of nurturing domestic innovation. Muslim scientists trained in elite Western institutions frequently return home only to find their creativity stifled. To regain dignity and independence, Muslims must revive ijtihad, foster curiosity, and build robust ecosystems for research and innovation.
Conclusion: Faith and Reason Reunited
The decline of Islamic science was not inevitable; it was the result of choices. The choice remains before us today: to remain passive consumers of knowledge or to reclaim our heritage as leaders of discovery. As the Qur’an reminds us: “Indeed, God does not change the condition of a people until they change what is within themselves” (13:11). By reconnecting revelation with reason, Muslims can raise a new generation—scientifically capable, spiritually grounded, and prepared to serve humanity. This renewal is not only possible; it is necessary for the Muslim world to regain its rightful place in advancing civilization.
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M. Basheer Ahmed, M.D., is a physician, humanitarian, and advocate for interfaith understanding and global peace. He is a former professor of psychiatry at UT Southwestern Medical School in Dallas, TX. He has written extensively on Muslim unity, interfaith dialogue, and Middle East policy.
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