The Theology of Mutazilites and Asharites: Reason and Revelation are complementary
By M. Basheer Ahmed, New Age Islam
1 December 2025
Introduction: The Theology of Mutazilites and Asharites
In Islam, the primary purpose of human creation is to worship God (51:56). The concept of worship extends beyond ritual acts to encompass all righteous conduct—including moral behaviour, the promotion of justice, and service to humanity. As God’s vicegerents on Earth, humans are entrusted with free will, and tested by the choices, they make between good and evil. Through righteous living and sincerity, they seek God’s mercy and the eternal reward of the hereafter.
To provide guidance for this purpose, God sent Prophet Muhammad (born 571 CE), and revealed the Qur’an to him between 610 and 632 CE. The Prophet’s message emphasized radical equality, supplanting tribal loyalties with a universal brotherhood among believers and establishing the sacredness of life, property and human dignity.
Yet, soon after the Prophet’s death, this unity was immediately tested. A political crisis over succession fractured the community, leading to sectarian divisions that persist to this day. Tribal loyalties reappeared, eroding the unity the Prophet had worked to establish.The ensuing conflicts, including a civil war that pitted the Prophet’s wife and his son-in-law and close companions against one another, cost thousands of Muslim lives and left lasting scars on the community. These divisions opened the door to deeper debates about the interpretation of the Qur’an and the nature of human responsibility
Human Interpretation Of The Quran
In this turbulent context, fundamental theological questions arose from differing interpretations of the Quran. Within decades, two opposing schools of thought emerged: the Quadriyyah, who argued for human free will, and the Jabariyyah, who advocated for divine predestination. This debate centred on a critical paradox: if God is all-powerful and preordains all actions, how can humans be held morally accountable for them? Conversely, if humans act freely, does this limit God’s omnipotence?
It was from the crucible of this debate that two of the most influential theological schools in Islamic history emerged: the Mutazilites and the Asharites. Their profound disagreement over the nature of divine justice, human freedom, and God's attributes would shape the course of Islamic thought for centuries.
The Mutazilite-Asharite dialogue is not just a historical curiosity, it’s at the heart of questions about reason, revelation, and justice that remain deeply relevant. The theological debates between the Mutazilites and Asharites reflect Islam’s enduring struggle to reconcile divine justice with human free will: while the Mutazilites emphasized reason, moral responsibility, and the necessity of free choice to uphold God’s justice, the Asharites defended God’s absolute sovereignty by subordinating human agency to divine will. Together, these schools illustrate how early Muslim thought sought to balance faith and reason in defining the relationship between God’s omnipotence and human accountability.
This Article reflects how Muslims scholars interpret Quranic verses and come to different conclusions resulting in two different ideologies. Only God knows who is right and who is wrong. The Quran says “If Allah had willed, He would have made you into one community, but His Will is to test you with what He has given to each of you. So, compete with one another doing well. To Allah you will all return, and then He will inform you ˹of the truth˺ regarding your differences (Al-Maida:5 48).”
Mutazilites
The Mu'tazila were a significant school of Islamic theology that emerged in the 8th century, renowned for their rationalist approach. They believed that reason and revelation were complementary, with reason serving as the primary tool for interpreting scripture. If a literal reading of a text conflicted with rational understanding, a metaphorical interpretation was preferred.
The origins of Muʿtazilite theology can be traced to Hasan al-Basri in the 7th century, who, following the Qadariyyah, taught that humans are fully responsible for their actions. He rejected the idea that God is the sole creator of human acts, arguing that God would not command virtue if humans lacked the power to choose it. Waṣil ibn ʿAṭāʾ, a student of Hasan al-Basri, later separated from his circle over a theological dispute and went on to develop the doctrines of the Muʿtazila as a distinct school.
The Muʿtazila flourished in Basra and Baghdad and became the official theology of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century, during which the caliphate supported the Miḥna (inquisition) to enforce Mutazilite doctrine. Their influence declined after the Mongol invasion of Baghdad in the 13th century and as opposition from more traditional schools—especially the Ashʿarites, who emphasized divine omnipotence and the primacy of revelation—grew. After the school’s collapse, Mutazilite thought was widely regarded as heretical. Nevertheless, its rationalist method continued to shape Islamic theology, and modern scholarship has revived interest in Mutazilite ideas to confront contemporary intellectual challenges.
Mutazilites doctrine is traditionally summarized in five principles, most prominently Divine justice, human free will, the intermediate position, and the unity of God.
1. Divine Justice and Free Will
The Mutazila held that humans possess genuine free will, and are therefore fully accountable for their actions. Reason, they argued, can independently discern good and evil even in the absence of explicit revelation. Since God is perfectly just and wise, evil cannot be attributed to Him. Human wrongdoing results from human choices, not divine creation of sinful acts.
God does not impose faith or unbelief on anyone; He grants humans the capacity to choose. Reward and punishment must therefore be merited, for it would be unjust for God to compel sin and then punish humans for it. They cited Qur’anic verses such as:
“Allah wills no injustice to His servants” (40:31)
“Verily Allah will not deal unjustly with humankind in anything” (10:44)
The Mutazila interpreted verses about God “guiding” or “leading astray” (e.g., 14:4) as referring to outcomes after judgment—not predestined actions in this life.
Human life, with its inequalities and trials, is a test. The privileged are accountable for how they use their advantages, while the less fortunate are promised compensation for their suffering. Ultimately, humans need revelation—because reason alone is not sufficient—to fully know what benefits or harms them.
In this framework, Ashʿarites emphasized God’s absolute power, while the Mutazila focused on His justice.
2. The Intermediate Position
The Mutazila held that a Muslim who commits a grave sin without repentance occupies an intermediate position (Manzila Bayna Al-Manzilatayn)—neither a true believer (Mu’min) nor a disbeliever (Kāfir). Belief, they argued, must be reflected in moral actions. Such individuals, if they die unrepentant, will enter Hell, but their punishment will be less severe than that of outright unbelievers, since Hell contains degrees proportionate to human choices.
3. The Unity of God (Tawḥid)
The Mutazila developed a rationalist theology (Kalam) emphasizing God’s absolute oneness and simplicity. They rejected the existence of divine attributes as independent entities, arguing that God knows, wills, and acts through His essence, not through attributes separate from it. Ascribing distinct eternal attributes would compromise divine unity.
Anthropomorphic Qur’anic expressions—God’s “hands,” “eyes,” “face,” or “sitting on the Throne”—were interpreted metaphorically:
God’s “hands” = His blessings, His “eyes” = His knowledge, His “face” = His essence, His “Throne” = His dominion and power
Because God is not a body, He cannot possess bodily attributes such as form, movement, or location, nor can He be seen in this world or the next. Verses describing believers “looking toward their Lord” (75:23) were interpreted as hoping for or awaiting His mercy. Similarly, expressions of God’s “anger” or “pleasure” were not considered literal attributes, since states of emotion are changeable and God’s essence is immutable.
4. The Createdness of the Qur’an
A central Mutazilite doctrine was that the Qur’an is created, not eternal. Since God is uncreated and His essence is timeless, His speech must come into existence when He wills it. They reasoned that asserting the Qur’an as eternal would imply multiple eternal beings—God and His speech—or that all divine revelations (Torah, Gospel, Qur’an) are co-eternal, which contradicts the Qur’an’s teachings on creation.
Mutazilites interpreted verses such as:
“We have made it a Qur'an in Arabic that you may understand” (43:3)
“We narrate to you stories… and We have given you a message from Us” (20:99)
as evidence that the Qur’an was brought into existence for human guidance.
Mainstream Sunni theology, especially Ash’arism, responded that God’s speech is an eternal attribute, while the physical forms—sounds, letters, manuscripts—are created. The Mutazila rejected this distinction as incoherent.
For Mutazilites the Qur’an is God’s message, meant to be understood, practiced, and applied—not elevated to the status of an eternal entity alongside God.
5-The Promise and the Threat
Consistent with their view of justice, the Mu'tazila held that God is bound by His own promises. Those who obey Him must be rewarded with Paradise, and unrepentant sinners must be punished in Hell. This underscores the real-world consequences of the free choices for which humans are responsible.
Asharites
Ashʿarism is a major school of Islamic theology founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ashʿari (873–941 CE), born in Basrah and later active in Baghdad. In his youth, al-Ashʿari was a devoted student of the prominent Mutazilite scholar al-Jubbaʿi and upheld Muʿtazilite doctrines until the age of forty. His turning point came when he questioned the Muʿtazilite belief that God’s actions must conform to rational standards and that God is obligated to act for the best interests of His creatures. Al-Ashʿari concluded that such constraints were incompatible with divine omnipotence and thus initiated a theological reform that became the foundation of Sunni orthodoxy.
1. Historical and Intellectual Context
The Muʿtazilite project aimed to place Islamic doctrine upon rational foundations, offering systematic interpretations of creed using the tools of Greek-influenced Kalām. Ashʿarites responded that ultimate religious truths cannot be resolved through reason alone and must be grounded in revelation.
The Mutazilite movement sought to interpret Islamic doctrines on a rational basis, giving logical explanations for matters of creed. Ashʿarites, however, argued that the core principles of faith cannot be proven through reason alone and must ultimately be accepted through revelation. The political imposition of Mutazilite doctrines—most notably under Caliph al-Maʾmūn through the Mihnah (inquisition)—provoked a strong backlash. Influenced by Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and other traditionalists, many scholars rejected rationalist “innovations” and insisted on a literal adherence to the Qur’an and Sunnah. In reaction, even anthropomorphic verses were interpreted literally, as in the statement attributed to Mālik ibn Anas: “God’s settling Himself upon His Throne is known; how it is, is unknown.” Ash’arism later gained traction as a balanced alternative to both literalism and rationalism. By the 11th century—especially after the establishment of the Niẓāmiyya academies and the contributions of al-Ghazālī—Ashʿarism became the dominant theological school in Sunni Islam.
2 . Core Theological Principles
Ashʿarites emphasized God’s absolute power, will, and sovereignty. What God commands is good; what He forbids is evil—regardless of human reasoning. They held that humans possess limited freedom of choice but that God ultimately creates all actions.
Human "Acquisition" (Kasb): Ash'arites reject the existence of independent natural laws, as these would limit God's absolute power. Instead, God directly causes every event—for example, fire burns cotton not because of inherent properties, but because God creates the combustion at that moment. Humans “acquire” responsibility for acts created by God. This doctrine is known in Western philosophy as occasionalism. This is known as Occasionalism
While Ashʿarites encouraged the use of intellect in worldly matters, including science, they restricted reason from determining religious truth.
God and the Human Relationship
Good and evil are known through revelation, not by intuition or nature.
There are no independent “laws of nature,” since fixed natural laws would limit God’s power. For example, al-Ghazālī argued that when a match lights cotton, God creates the ignition directly; the objects themselves have no inherent causal power.All actions—even lifting a finger—are created by God, though humans acquire responsibility through intention.
Acquisition of Knowledge
Ashʿarites held that knowledge comes through both reason and revelation, but revelation is the ultimate authority. Reason has limits and cannot independently discover the deepest truths of faith.
Key Asharite Doctrines
1. God and His Attributes
God is one, eternal, and possesses attributes such as knowledge, power, will, life, hearing, seeing, and speech. Attributes mentioned in the Qur’an—such as hands, eyes, and God’s settling on the Throne—are affirmed without interpretation, understood in a manner befitting His majesty, without asking “how.”
2. Free Will God creates human actions and the power to act. Humans do not originate actions but choose between alternatives, thereby acquiring moral responsibility. The intention determines whether the action merits reward or punishment.
3.The role of Reason, Revelation: While intellect is encouraged for worldly matters like science and governance, it is subservient to revelation in matters of faith. Reason should be used to understand and defend religious doctrines, not to judge them. In any conflict between reason and revelation, revelation prevail
4. The Eternity of the Qur’an :Ashʿarites distinguished between: the eternal, uncreated divine speech (Kalam Nafsī), and the created sounds and letters through which the Qur’an is recited. The Qur’an is “sent down” by God; it is not created. God’s speech, as an attribute, is eternal and inseparable from His knowledge.
5. Reward and Punishment: God has absolute freedom to reward or punish as He wills. He may punish a person even without sin or forgive sinners purely by His mercy. His will is not bound by human notions of justice.
6. Beatific Vision and God's Attributes: The righteous will see God in the afterlife, a belief based on a literal interpretation of Qur'anic verses. Similarly, descriptions of God (e.g., His "hand" or "settling on the Throne") are accepted Bilā Kayfa—without questioning their modality ("how").
Spread of Ash’arism
Asharite theology gained institutional support when Niẓām al-Mulk founded the Niẓāmiyya Academy in Baghdad in 1066. The school flourished especially after al-Ghazālī systematized and popularized its teachings.
Main Differences Between Ashʿarites and Mutazilites
God’s Nature and Attributes:
Mutazilites: God’s essence is simple and undivided ; attributes are descriptive, not separate from the essence. Ashʿarites: Affirm divine attributes as real and eternal; rejecting them negates God’s perfection.
2. Human Free Will
Mutazilites: Humans create their own actions and thus deserve reward or punishment. God wills the good but does not will sin. Ashʿarites: God creates all actions; humans acquire them. Human “choice” does not produce the act.
3. Criterion of Good and Evil
Mutazilites: Actions are inherently good or evil; reason can discern this. God commands good because it is good. Ashʿarites: Actions are not inherently moral; they become good or evil through divine command. Revelation—not reason—is the ultimate authority.
4. Divine Justice and Human Responsibility
Mutazilites: Divine justice requires that God act in the best manner and reward/punish fairly based on human-created actions.Ashʿarites: God is not bound by human standards; justice is whatever God wills.
The Resurfacing of the Mutazilite Movement
After its decline, Mutazilite theology was long dismissed as heretical, yet its rationalist legacy continued to influence Islamic thought. In the modern era, scholars have revived interest in Mutazilism as Muslims confront new intellectual and social challenges. Ashʿarism, which once supplanted Mutazilism by mediating between strict rationalism and traditionalism, remained the dominant Sunni theological framework for centuries.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Mutazilite writings were “rediscovered,” sparking a renewed appreciation of their emphasis on reason, moral responsibility, and free will. Many modern thinkers view Mutazilism as a symbol of intellectual freedom and an important resource for reconciling Islamic faith with contemporary realities.
Key Modern Figures Influenced by Mutazilite Ideas
Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905): A founder of Islamic Modernism, Abduh revived interest in Mutazilite principles and sought to harmonize Islam with modernity. As Grand Mufti of Egypt, he worked to reform Al-Azhar and inspire later reformist thinkers.
Nasr Abu Zayd (1943–2010): A prominent Egyptian scholar who adopted the Muʿtazilite view of the Qurʾan’s createdness, advocating a contextual and humanistic reading of scripture against rigid literalism.
Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938 INDIA): Although critical of both Ash’arism and Mutazilism, Iqbal saw the suppression of Mutazilite thought as a setback for Muslim intellectual life. He championed Ijtihād and sought a synthesis of tradition and modernity through his philosophy of Khudi (selfhood).
Fazlur Rahman (1919–1988 Pakistan): A leading modernist scholar who openly adopted Mutazilite-influenced positions. He promoted educational reform, moral interpretation of the Qurʾan, and renewal of Ijtihād to address modern ethical challenges.
Khaled Abou El Fadl (b. 1963 Kuwait): Though not a classical Mutazilite, he advocates an “ethical humanism” often associated with Mutazilite reasoning. He strongly criticizes authoritarian and literalist interpretations of Islam.
In 2017, the Association for the Renaissance of Mutazilite Islam (ARIM) was established in France to promote reason, free will, and ethical interpretation of scripture in confronting 21st-century challenges. ARIM views Mutazilism not as a rigid doctrine but as a mindset emphasizing critical inquiry, independent reasoning, and moral accountability.
Today, a growing number of Muslim scholars draw inspiration from Mutazilite ideals to revive the scientific and intellectual dynamism of the Muslim Golden Age. However, However, this Neo-Muʿtazilism is still far from a structured movement for an organized school of Islamic theology.
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M. Basheer Ahmed, M.D., is a physician, humanitarian, and advocate for interfaith understanding and global peace. He is a former professor of psychiatry at UT Southwestern Medical School in Dallas, TX. He has written extensively on Muslim unity, interfaith dialogue, and Middle East policy.
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