Manipulation of Qur'anic Verses in Extremist Islamist Discourse: A Critical Analysis of Sword Verses - Part One
By Grace Mubashir,
New Age Islam
20 March 2024
Militant Islamist Ideologues And Propagandists Seek To
Supplement Their Message With References To The Holy Book Of Islam, Framing The
Narrative In A Religious Setting And Adding Perceived Religious Purpose And
Legitimacy To The Prescribed Campaign Of Jihadist Militancy
Main Points:
1.
Militant Islamists
maintain a rhetorical commitment to Salafist principles, emphasizing the
foundational importance of Islamic scripture – the Qur'an and Hadith – and
advocating for their literal interpretation and implementation
2.
Militant
interpretation often fails to capture the true essence of the Qur'anic verses
and the context in which they were revealed
-----
Modern militant Islamism, often labelled as
'jihadi-Salafism', diverges from the broader non-activist and apolitical
strands of Salafism by actively engaging with what it perceives as a political
reality. Despite this departure, militant Islamists maintain a rhetorical
commitment to Salafist principles, emphasizing the foundational importance of
Islamic scripture – the Qur'an and Hadith – and advocating for their literal
interpretation and implementation. Acting as self-appointed guardians of the
faith, militant Islamists insist on adherence to their interpretation of these
religious doctrines, rejecting alternative forms of sovereignty in favour of
what they see as the exclusive authority of the Qur'an and Sunnah, as
articulated by figures like Ayman al-Zawahiri.
This fundamentalist ideology has been adopted and wielded by
extremist fringe groups primarily active in the Middle East for their
religio-political objectives. Reuven Paz outlines three significant avenues
through which this influence manifests:
(1) the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood (most famously through
Sayyid Qutb’s ideas of Jahiliyyah —pre-Islamic ignorance, and Hakimiyyah—sovereignty
of God),
(2) Neo-Wahhabis of the Arabian Peninsula, and
(3) the works of prominent Palestinian-Jordanian Islamist
activists (primarily Abdullah Azzam, Abu Qatada and Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi).
In this examination, the focus lies solely on Qur'anic
verses explicitly endorsing violence or combat, which militant Islamists have
exploited in their messaging to incite support for violent jihad. This analysis
excludes the more common utilization of Qur'anic verses to promote unity within
the Muslim community and to strengthen resolve in the face of trials,
temptations, and adversaries. It's important to clarify that this study does
not aim to dissect the Qur'an itself but rather to scrutinize the selective use
of individual verses by jihadist propagandists to glorify and advocate acts of
violence. As illustrated below, their interpretation often fails to capture the
true essence of the Qur'anic verses and the context in which they were
revealed.
In this study, I aim to achieve two primary objectives:
1. To examine the characteristics of Qur'anic
referencing that rationalize violence, focusing particularly on the verses
frequently utilized for this purpose in Islamist literature.
2. To identify aspects of selective and
de-contextualized referencing that could potentially be exploited to undermine
the narrative of militant Islamism.
Certain sections of the Qur'an were revealed during a time
marked by fierce inter-tribal conflicts in the Arabian Peninsula, notably
during Prophet Muhammad's determined efforts, particularly post-migration (Hijra)
to Medina, where he laid the foundations of Islam. Consequently, specific
chapters (Surahs) of the Qur'an contain references to aspects of warfare
and combat. These passages have since become central to the rhetoric of
contemporary militant Islamist activists, who exploit them to advance their
agenda.
Fragmented elements endorsing violence are not exclusive to
the Qur'an; they also exist within other religious texts, such as the Bible and
the Old Testament. Particularly within the Old Testament, there are vivid
descriptions of bloodshed celebrated as having divine sanction. For example,
sections of Deuteronomy illustrate a lack of tolerance for idolatry, with
believers commanded to dismantle altars, destroy sacred pillars, and eradicate
idols by fire (Deuteronomy 7:5-6). Similar condemnation of idolatry in the
Qur'an, notably in Al-Taubah (9):5, often referred to as "the verse of the
sword," serves as a foundation for justifying violence. Additionally,
numerous commands and accounts within the Old Testament glorify and legitimize
violence.
Abdullah Azzam, a significant figure among contemporary
jihadists and an influence on Osama bin Laden, sought to delineate the
progression of the concept of jihad and warfare in the Qur'an in his book
"Defence of Muslim Lands." He identified several key stages in which
"the command to fight" was revealed. Initially, believers were
instructed to uphold their faith and distance themselves from polytheism, as
elucidated in Al-Hijr (15): 94. Subsequently, there was the directive to invite
non-believers to Islam, found in An-Nahl (16): 125. Should this invitation be
rejected, according to Azzam's interpretation of Al-Hajj (22): 39, believers
were permitted to engage in combat. Defensive warfare was sanctioned by
Al-Baqarah (2): 191, while aggressive action after the conclusion of the sacred
month was authorized by At-Taubah (9): 5. Finally, the right "to fight all
out in general" was encouraged, as outlined by Azzam, in Al-Baqarah (2):
190: "And fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but transgress
not the limits. Truly Allah likes not the transgressors."
Azzam's analysis highlights some of the most frequently
referenced "fighting verses" within the discourse analysed. These
"verses of the sword" are selectively framed and employed to
underscore the perception of violence in the Qur'an, bolstering the argument
that Muslims are obligated to support militant causes. Consequently, this
selective referencing often presents a skewed and inaccurate portrayal of the
Holy Book.
Appendix lists all Qur'anic verses instrumentalised in more
than three of the articles analysed to justify or encourage support for
(terrorist) violence, along with their full English translations according to
Ahmed Ali's 1993 translation of the Qur'an. Among these verses, An-Nisa 74-75
was quoted most frequently. These verses underscore grievance-based violent
responses, aligning with the prevalent focus on grievances throughout the
militant Islamist narrative. Surah 4, "The Women" (An-Nisa),
At-Taubah (9), and Al-Baqarah (2) were the most prominently utilized chapters
to convey and frame the pro-violence message. Notably, there were no
significant differences in terms of the years or periods of publication.
An-Nisa 74-75, for instance, appeared in medieval texts, Abdullah Azzam's works
from the Soviet invasion era, as well as newer publications from As-Sahab.
Interestingly, the review only identified two of the texts
coded the verse Al-Anfal: 60:
“Prepare against them whatever
arms and cavalry you can muster, that you may strike terror in (the hearts of)
the enemies of God and your own, and others besides them not known to you, but
known to God. Whatever you spend in the way of God will be paid back to you in
full, and no wrong will be done to you.”
According to Gilles Kepel, this ayah is the central theme of
the pro-militant narrative found in the writings of Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, Abu
Mus'ab al-Suri, and other famous scholars. It is one of the most well-known
verses from the "Spoils of War" that are used to defend violent
jihad. For Suri, the passage indicated the difference between "praiseworthy
terrorism" refers to acts of violence carried out in God's service,
wherein believers are ordered to "strike terror" on those who oppose
Islam. Therefore, Al-Anfal: 60 served as the foundation for his concept of ‘Irhab
Mahmud’, which is defined as "terrorism by the righteous who have been
unjustly treated."
Suri disapproved of the September 11 attacks since they cost
him his safe haven in Afghanistan, but Osama bin Laden has used comparable
language and justifications to support Al-Qaeda's terrorist plot and the 9/11
attacks. For example, he stated in his audio message from December 13, 2001, that
"our terrorism against America is praiseworthy terrorism in order to repel
the injustice of the oppressor."
The Supporters of Shariah publication, which coded this
story, used a similar classification system soon after Al-Qaeda bombed two US
embassies in East Africa in August 1998. The Finsbury Park Mosque in North
London's Abu Hamza al-Masri organization issued a newsletter that described the
attack as "Islamic (obligatory) terrorism" and recommended supporting
it. The authors cited Al-Anfal: 60 to bolster their claim.
Some of the militant materials used Hadith or anecdotal
tales celebrating the acts of "martyrs" and highlighting grievances
to stress the need for the Ummah to participate and support the struggle in the
name of Islam, rather than the Qur'an, to encourage fighting and violence. Not
unexpectedly, the majority of this was tied to audio-visual content, with
written materials relying on more exacting Qur'anic quotations. In trying to
ground the pro-jihadist argument in the Qur'an, publications by Abdullah Azzam,
Ibn Tamiyyah, and Ibn Nuhaas (via Anwar Awlaqi's translation and
interpretation) were particularly notable.
The leader of Jaish-e-Mohammed in Pakistan, Maulana Mohammed
Masood Azhar, also centred a large portion of his book, ‘The Virtues of Jihad’,
on the significance of fighting according to the teachings of the Qur'an.
"There is general agreement among Quranic scholars that no other specific
action has been outlined with as much precision as Jihad," Azhar asserted.
His analysis indicated that the Qur'an made reference to Jihad-Fi-Sabilillah
(meaning "Jihad in the path of Allah") 26 times and Qital
(fighting) 79 times.
De-contextualised Use of Quotes from the Qur’an to
Justify Violence
The declaration issued by the 'World Islamic Front for Jihad
against the Jews and Crusaders' in February 1998 marked the ambition of what
later became known as Al-Qaeda to target Americans and their allies, both
civilians and military. This declaration considered a significant public
message from Al-Qaeda's leadership, began by quoting Sura At-Taubah (9): 5,
urging Muslims to recognize their duty to 'slay the idolaters' wherever they
may be found. However, the version of the verse cited by bin Laden and his
co-signatories was truncated, omitting the second part of the ayah which
emphasizes forgiveness and kindness if the idolaters repent, fulfil their
obligations, and pay the zakat.
This selective quoting of Qur'anic verses to suit specific
agendas is a pattern observed in bin Laden's earlier Declaration of War in
October 1996 as noted by Bruce Lawrence. Bin Laden disregards the original
context of the verses and manipulates them to serve his own objectives. This
approach distorts the broader teachings of the Qur'an and reduces its nuanced
messages into a simplistic requirement of belief followed by warfare.
In this instance, the Qur'an is used to justify targeting
'idolaters'—those who worship false gods—as legitimate targets. Ayman
al-Zawahiri, a founding member of the 'World Islamic Front', previously argued
on behalf of Al-Jihad that this command to target idolaters is particularly
relevant when considering Western liberal democracies. He characterized
democracy as a new religion that grants legislative authority to the people,
which, according to him, amounts to associating idols with God and constitutes
disbelief in Islam.
Other quotes from Zawahiri further show how, in light of its
interpretation of the Qur'an, Al-Qaeda justified its targeting of Christians by
labelling them as "idolaters," or worshipers of false gods.
'Christianity cannot be accepted by a sound mind since it incorporates
superstitions like the trinity, the crucifixion, redemption, the original sin,
the pope's infallibility, and the church's forgiveness of sins,' he asserted,
for example, in 2006. Furthermore, a number of Al-Qaeda communiqués have
attempted to classify Arab political leaders as "idol kings," meaning
that the Qur'an approves of their persecution.
Al-Qaeda bases its arguments on what it sees as Islamic
legitimization and thus aims to shape the Qur'anic verses and the heart of its
own narrative to align with the group's ideology and strategic goals.
In his ground-breaking work Defence of the Muslim Lands,
which was previously noted, Abdullah Azzam reviewed the evolution of the idea
of jihad in the name of the Lord and included a condensed version of At-Taubah
(9): 5. Azzam argued how the order to fight was given to Muslims gradually,
citing the Hanafi jurist and scholar Ibn Abidin (d. 1842). He contended that
when the hallowed months had passed, more aggressive battle against
Mushrikun—Jews, Christians, and pagans, in his view—would be allowed.
"Then, when the sacred months (the first, seventh,
eleventh, and twelfth months of the Islamic calendar) have passed, then kill
the Mushrikun wherever you find them," was the command given to them when
the sacred months had gone.
The prohibitions against combat outlined in Sura 9:5 and the
Qur'anic context were likely purposefully omitted. The same is true of Ibn
Nuhaas's (Ahmad Ibrahim Muhammad al Dimashqi) book Mashari al-Ashwaq ila
Masari al-Ushaaq, written by the medieval scholar (d. 1411). The first
chapter of Ibn Nuhaas' book, "On The Command of Jihad Against the
Non-Believers and its Mandate, and the Stern Warning Against Those who Do Not
Practice Jihad," is introduced with the verse At-Taubah (9): 5. However,
it is quoted without the second paragraph of the Ayat, or those that provide
context, limiting the level of violence that is acceptable in the first
paragraph.
Erroneously attributed to Al-Anfal (Surah 8) instead of
At-Taubah, the entire poem appears unedited in Dhiren Barot's book The Army of
Madinah in Kashmir (published under the pen name "Esa al-Hindi").
-----
A regular
columnist for NewAgeIslam.com, Mubashir V.P is a PhD scholar in Islamic Studies
at Jamia Millia Islamia and freelance journalist.
New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism