Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Five: The Great Conqueror
By
Moin Qazi, New Age Islam
18 August
2023
Amongst the nations before your time, there
have been inspired people(who were not Prophets), and if there is one amongst
my Ummah, he is Umar
- Prophet Muhammad
The
Great Conqueror
Umar's
caliphate is notable for its vast conquest. With the aid of brilliant field
commanders, Umar was able to incorporate present-day Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan, much
of the Armenia, Georgia, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Egypt, Byzantine
and part of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and southwestern Pakistan into the Caliphate.
During his
reign, the Byzantines lost more than three-fourths of their territory and in
Persia, the Sassanid Empire ceased to exist. Islam was a powerful link in the
smooth flow of Western civilization from its Graeco-Roman origins to its more
recent European and American manifestations. Instead, at its zenith, the
‘Abbasid caliphate stretched over the entire Middle East and part of North
Africa and influenced Islamic regimes as far west as Spain. Bennison’s
examination of the politics, society, and culture of the ‘Abbasid period
presents a picture of a society that nurtured many of the “civilized” values
that Western civilization claims to represent, albeit in different premodern
forms - from urban planning and international trade networks to religious
pluralism and academic research.
Umar’s
reign is also acclaimed for his administrative reforms, which began the process
of turning Muhammad’s band of followers into a functioning political entity
that would be able to govern a vast empire. Less than a hundred years after the
death of Muhammad in A.D. 632, his followers had burst out of the Arabian
Desert to conquer and create an empire whose glory was to shine for a thousand
years.
Braving
themselves like a cavalry of God, the Muslims spread the faith through their new
converts from vanquished territories. Devout Arab traders later carried their
faith to Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and the Philippines. Other traders
introduced the Qur’an to black tribes of Africa that lived south of the Sahara
Desert.
Umar had
not so much to stimulate conquest as to organize and channel it. He chose as
leaders who were skilful managers experienced in trade and commerce as well as
warfare and imbued with an ideology that provided their activities with a
cosmic significance. The total numbers involved in the initial conquests may
have been relatively small, perhaps less than 50,000, divided into numerous
shifting groups. Yet few actions took place without any sanction from the
Medinan government or one of its appointed commanders. The fighters, or Muqātilah,
could generally accomplish much more with Medina’s support than without.
The
renaissance in early Islam was very swift and was driven by very high ethical
standards. The extraordinary nobility of Prophet Muhammad and the early Caliphs
captivated the world and the new religion drew adherents at an unparalleled
rate. By Muhammad’s death in 632, Islam was well established as the faith of
Arabia. Within a century, its sway extended from Spain to India.
The Islamic
civilization produced globally unparalleled literature, science, philosophy,
theological discourse, architecture, and cultural influences - influences so
strong that they made European nobles want to dress like Muslims.Unlike the
Byzantines, with their suspicion of classical science and philosophy, the
Muslims were actively enjoined by the traditions - the dicta of the Prophet -
to “seek learning, though it is in China.” Another well-known rule states: “The
search for knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim”; another that “The ink of
scholars is worth more than the blood of martyrs.”
Just as
important as the extent of Umar’s conquests is their permanence. Although its
population converted to Islam, Iran eventually regained its independence from
Arab rule. But Syria, Iraq and Egypt never did. Those countries became
thoroughly Arabized and remain so to this day. Umar had to devise policies for
the proper administration of the great empire which was very diverse
politically, culturally and socially.He decided that the Arabs were to be a
privileged military caste in the regions they had conquered and that they
should live in garrison cities, apart from the natives. The subject peoples
were to pay tribute to their Muslim (largely Arab) conquerors but were
otherwise to be left in peace. In particular, they were not to be forcibly
converted to Islam.
More than
1,400 years after his reign, Umar is still remembered as a man of compassion,
piety and justice. Drawing on these principles, Umar treated all those under
his care equally, irrespective of whether they were rich or poor, black or
white, powerful or weak. He feared that God would question him about his
actions. He was always worried that there may be sick or poor people among the
believers that he may have neglected. Despite the high office he held, Umar was
so deeply concerned about his responsibility towards his subjects that once
when a bridge was being built across a river, Umar wanted the construction to
be absolutely defect-free lest he might have to answer for even the slightest
injury to any living being on account of any snag during the process of
construction. Umar’s rule is replete with instances of his piety and commitment
to justice.
During
Umar’s rule as Caliph, building on the precepts of Abu Bakr, the Islamic empire
expanded to occupy lands of the Persian and Byzantine empires, and the Sassanid
dynasty. The caliphate was organized under a unified sovereign authority,
formed by different provinces ruled by provincial Governors selected by the
Caliph.
On his
election as Caliph, Umar was faced with the geopolitical situation in West Asia
which required immediate attention. The Arabian Peninsula is a vast desert,
except for its southwestern tip near Najran and Yemen, where the monsoons bring
in the rain from the Indian Ocean and make the area fertile. To the north, the
extent of the desert is marked by the Jordan River, which separates it from the
hills of Palestine and Lebanon. To the east, its boundaries are marked by the
Euphrates. The area between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris is calledthe Jazira
(island). This area, known in ancient times as Mesopotamia, was called Iraq e
Arab in the early Islamic period. The waters of the two rivers irrigate this
area and have made it the cradle of civilizations. In the east of the river
Tigris, the land gradually rises into the Persian Plateau leading into the
heartland of ancient Fars. The Arabs called this area Iraq e Ajam and it
included the Farsi (Persian) speaking areas of Khuzistan, Hamadan, Fars,
Persepolis, Isfahan, Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Makran and Baluchistan.
A study of
the military operation would reveal the factors which spurred the sweeping
victories of Muslims in such a short period. During the reign of the second
Caliph, Muslims ruled over an area of 22530 square miles which included Syria,
Egypt, Iraq, Persia, Khurzistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kirman, Khorasan, Mekran
and part of Baluchistan. A handful of ill-equipped and unskilled Arabs had
overthrown two of the mightiest Empires of the world. The teachings of the Prophet
of Islam had infused a new spirit in the adherents of the new faith, who fought
simply for the sake of God. The wise policy followed by the second Caliph of
Islam in the selection of his generals and liberal terms offered to the
conquered races were instrumental in the lightning victories scored by Muslims.
Umar was a great military strategist; he issued detailed instructions on the
conduct of operations. A perusal of the history of Tabari would reveal that
Umar, sitting thousands of miles away, guided his armies on the battlefronts
and monitored and directed their movements. The rigid hand he kept upon his
most popular generals indicates his extraordinary capacity to rule and govern a
vast sprawling empire. Through his letters to his generals, he endeavoured
incessantly to goad his warriors towards excellence and merit. He believed it
would enhance the morale of the armed forces.
The Persian
and Byzantine empires held the balance of power in the region with the
Euphrates River as the historical divide between their respective areas of
influence. Persia also controlled Yemen and the territories along the Red Sea
north to Makkah and Madinah. The emergence of Islam and the unification of the
Arabs altered this balance of power. It was a situation that neither the
Byzantinians nor the Persians could ignore. Khosroe, the emperor of Persia, was
on record as having ordered an assault on Madinah. The Byzantinians had
attacked the northern frontier and killed the Muslim general Zaid bin Haris
(632). Border clashes began during the Abu Bakr's caliphate between the newborn
Islamic state and the two superpowers. The triumph of Umar over the mighty
empires of Persia and Byzantium within a brief span of ten years is one of the
most remarkable stories in military history.
Treaty
with the Jews
In
Jerusalem, Umar agreed with Christians giving them the security of life,
propertyand freedom of religion. This is referred to as Umar’s Covenant; it
stipulates the following conditions:
In the
name of Allah, Ever Gracious, Most Merciful.
This is the
covenant of peace that Umar, the servant of God and the commander of the
faithful, has made with the people of Elia (Jerusalem). This charter which is
vouchsafed to them guarantees them the protection of life, property, churches,
crosses, and those that set up, display and honour these crosses. Their
churches shall not be used as dwellings, nor destroyed, nor shall they or their
compounds, their crosses and their belongings be diminished in any way. They
shall not be subjected to persecution in matters about their religion, nor
shall they be in any way annoyed. No Jew shall dwell with them in Jerusalem.
It is
incumbent on the people of Jerusalem that they should pay the jizyah as people
of other towns do. They must turn out the Greeks and the robbers. Whoever of
the Greeks leaves the town, his life and property shall be protected till he
should reach a place of safety. Whoever should stay in Jerusalem, shall be
protected and he must pay jizyah like the rest of the inhabitants. Whoever should
wish to go away with the Greeks and take his property, shall leave behind their
churches and crucifixes, there is protection for them as well. Their lives,
properties, churches and crosses shall be protected till they reach a place of
safety. There shall be no payment of tribute till the harvest is gathered in.
Whatever is
contained in this deed is under the covenant of God and His Messenger, and
under the guarantees of his successors and the faithful, as long as the
inhabitants pay the jizyah.
Witnessed
by:
Khalida bin
Walid, Amr ibn al-As, Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, and Muawiyah ibn Sufiyan.
Later he
visited Bethlehem and prayed in the church of Nativity. The following incident
is recorded in Le Strange’s book, Palestine Under the Muslims. It is reported that
when he was in Bait Lahm, a monk approached him and said: “I would obtain mercy
of thee for Bait Lahm”. Said Umar; “I know naught of the place but would like
to see it.” When Umar came, he said to the people, “Ye shall have mercy and
safe conduct, but it is incumbent upon us that every place where there are
Christians, we should erect a mosque.” The monk answered: “There is in Bait
Lahm an arched building (Haniyyah) which is built to be turned towards your Qiblah,
take this and make it a mosque for the Muslims and do not destroy the church.”
Umar spared the church, saying his prayer in that arched building and made it a
mosque, laying on the Christians the service of lighting it with lamps and
keeping it clean and its repair.
There is
another version of the covenant said to have been reached after a conversation
between Umar Abu Ubayda (chief commander in Syria) and Constantine, the eldest
son of Heraclius.
These are
the terms imposed on the Christians. The rich are to pay forty-eight dirhams,
the middle class twenty-four, and the poor twelve. They are not to build
churches, not to lift a cross in the presence of Muslims, and to only beat the
nakus (bells) inside the churches. They are to share their houses so that the
Muslims may dwell in them; otherwise, I (UMAR) shall not be easy about you.
They are to
give part of the churches towards Makkah, has mosques for the Muslims, for they
are in the middle of the towns. They are not to drive pigs into the presence of
Muslims. They are to entertain them as guests three days and nights. They are
to provide mounts, for those on foot, from village to village. They are to help
them and not betray them. They are not to make agreements with their enemies.
He who breaks these conditions may be slain and his women and children made
slaves. (AS Tritton, page 11).
As they did
with all other cities they conquered, the Muslims had to write up a treaty
detailing the rights and privileges of the conquered people and the Muslims in
Jerusalem. This treaty was signed by Umar and Patriarch Sophronius, along with
some of the generals of the Muslim armies.
At the
time, this was by far one of the most progressive treaties in history. For
comparison, just 23 years earlier when Jerusalem was conquered by the Persians
from the Byzantines, a general massacre was ordered. Another massacre ensued
when Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders by the Muslims in 1099.
When Umar
surveyed Jerusalem from the Jewish temple site after conquering the city in
AD638, it was a defining moment in the emergence of the militant faith. Over
the decades that followed, the Muslim victory was consolidated by the
construction of the temple mount of the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock
(the supposed site of Mohammed's ascent to heaven after his miraculous 'Night
Journey' from Mecca). The Islamic conquerors had every reason to believe
history was on their side, while the arrival of the upstart religion shattered
the Christian empires of Europe and Byzantium. Within 100 years the Muslim
conquests had created an empire that stretched through Spain and into the heart
of France. Jerusalem is a city holy to the three largest monotheistic faiths –
Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Because of its history that spans thousands of
years, it goes by many names: Jerusalem, al-Quds, Yerushaláyim, Aelia, and
more, all reflecting its diverse heritage. It is a city that numerous Muslim
prophets called home, from Sulayman and Dawood to Isa (Jesus).
The first
epoch of 450 years began in 638 when Caliph Umar accepted the surrender of
Jerusalem and was surprised when informed that there were no Jews in the city.
Over the previous century, the Byzantine emperors, in collusion with the local
Christians, had forced the Jews to convert. Those who did not were expelled
from Jerusalem and banned from praying at the sacred Temple Wall. Jews often
came secretly to the neighboring hills overlooking the sacred site to pray and
gaze at the Temple wall. To rectify this injustice, Hazrat Umar encouraged 70
Jewish families to resettle in their ancestral homes and cleared a space for
them around the Temple Wall. He then personally wrote a document clearly
defining the rights of the minorities (dhimmis) in conquered lands. This edict,
called Ehed Umaria is today enshrined in the Mosque of Umar in the Christian
Quarter of Jerusalem. To commemorate the magnanimity of the Caliph, a large
area in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem is named Umar Ibn Khattab Square.
By 637,
Muslim armies began to make raids into Jerusalem. Jerusalem was under Patriarch
Sophronius, a representative of the Byzantine government, as well as a leader
in the Christian church. Although numerous Muslim armies under the command of
Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-‘As began to surround the city, Sophronius
refused to surrender unless Umar came to accept the surrender himself. Having
heard of such a condition, Umar left Madinah, traveling alone with one donkey
and one servant.
The Muslim
generals had been advised to meet the Caliph at Jabia. So, Yazid ibn Abi
Sufyan, Khalid ibn Walid and others came and received him at this place. Long
residence in Syria had robbed these officers of their Arabian simplicity. When
they arrived in Umar's presence, he saw them in silk from the richest looms and
their brilliant dresses and flamboyant appearances gave them the look of the
Persians. Umar flew into a fit of rage at the sight. He jumped off his horse
and, picking up a few pebbles that lay scattered about the ground, he pelted
them saying: “So soon have you fallen into Persian habits.”
The officers
replied that they had cuirasses beneath the silken tunics, implying that they
had not lost the art of war and that their warlike spirit was as keen as ever.
On hearing this, the Caliph relented and agreed that if such was the case then
there was no real harm done. Approaching close to the city, Umar got up on a
hillock and looked all around. The charming fields of Ghota with their
verdure-laden expense stretched and the stately and towering edifices of
Damascus loomed in front of him. He was strangely moved and in a tone of deep
pathos repeated the following verse from the Qur’an: “They have left many a
garden, fountain, park, arbour and riches which they used to enjoy. Thus, it is
that We put another community in possession thereof.”
Umar
sojourned for a long while at Jabia and the treaty of Jerusalem was drawn up
there. The Christians of Jerusalem had already been informed of the journey of
Umar and some of the nobles of that city proceeded to Damascus to see him. Umar
was seated amid the Muslim troops when suddenly a cloud of dust arose in the
distance and several horsemen appeared at full gallop with swords glittering at
their sides. The Muslims, startled at the appearance, instinctively felt for
their weapons. When Umar enquired the cause of the alarm, they pointed towards
the dashing cavalry.
Quickly,
Umar guessed that the approaching horsemen were the Christians of Jerusalem and
he accordingly reassured his men, saying they need not be alarmed as the
strangers only came to sue for peace. The treaty of peace was drawn up, and the
Companions' elite subscribed to it. This is Tabari’s statement. Balazuri and
Azdi on the other hand say that the treaty of peace was drawn up at Jerusalem.
After the
ratification of the treaty, Umar proceeded to Jerusalem. The hoofs of the horse
which he rode were worn to tenderness and the animal limped painfully. Umar
dismounted on seeing its sorry condition. His men brought him a fine courser of
Turkish breed. The horse was very aggressive and galloped violently. As Umar mounted
it, it began to prance at which he cried out: “Miserable thing I whence this
vain and haughty amble?” Thus, saying he alighted and pursued his way on foot.
As he entered Jerusalem, Abu Ubaida and other officers of the army came forth
to bid him welcome. The scantiness of Umar’s shabby attire and the tattered
condition of his scrubby equipage put the Muslims to shame and their sense of
self-respect received a shock when the galling idea crossed their minds as to
what the Christians would think of them on beholding their chief. So, they
brought for his use a gallant Turkish charger and a handsome dress of valuable
materials. Umar, however, rejected the offer saying that the honour which God
had conferred upon him was that of Islam and that that was enough for him. In
short, he entered Jerusalem in the same humble guise.
Sophronius,
dressed in the gilded raiment of his office, came out to meet Umar, expecting
to find a royally armoured conqueror. He was surprised to meet a simply dressed
man leading a camel mounted by Umar’s manservant. The two had travelled
together from the north, taking turns riding the camel. The humbly attired
commander of the Muslim army promised Sophronius that the people, property, and
holy sites of the city of Jerusalem would be spared. Moved by his pledge, the
bishop handed Umar the keys to the city gates and the Holy Sepulcher.
First of
all, he bowed before the mosque and then while approaching the arch of David,
he recited the verse from the Qur’an which speaks of the Apostle David as
bowing down to God and then prostrated himself in humble obeisance. He then
visited the church of the Christians and walked about the building for some
time.
Sophronius
ushered Umar to the Holy Sepulcher, the holiest church in Christendom and a
repository of divine history. Adam, the first man, was buried there. This was
the place of Christ’s empty tomb, and it was there that Helena, the mother of
Constantine the Great, had discovered the true cross and the crown of thorns.
For centuries, legends of the salutary effects of a visit to such sites, just a
touch of the sacred stone of the tomb were said to cure deadly diseases, had
been luring pilgrims throughout the world.
When the
time for prayer came, Sophronius invited Umar to pray inside the church, but
Umar refused. He insisted that if he prayed there, later Muslims would use it
as an excuse to convert it into a mosque – thereby depriving Christendom of one
of its holiest sites. Instead, Umar prayed outside the church, where a mosque
(called Masjid Umar – the Mosque of Umar) was later built. Umar then asked the
bishop about the site of the Holy Rock and Solomon’s Temple. The bishop didn’t
know exactly where the temple was, as the plateau where it had once stood was
now a vast garbage heap. There were piles of bones and human dung, animal
skins, and, most shocking of all, Muslim and Jews, pig carcasses.
Out from
the nearby crowds, says Muslim legend, a Jew stepped forward. It was he who now
offered to help Umar locate the site of the temple and the rock. And so the two
burrowed their way through the rubbish until they came to the spot. “It is
here,” the Jew said to Umar. “This is the place you seek.” Umar began digging
with his own hands. Once he had cleaned away the debris and wiped the Holy Rock
clean with his robe, he performed a prayer.
Umar
immediately set about making the city an important Muslim landmark. Umar and
his army (along with some Jews) personally cleaned it and built a mosque –
Masjid al-Aqsa, there.
Throughout
the remainder of Umar’s caliphate and into the Umayyad Empire’s reign over the
city, Jerusalem became a major centre of religious pilgrimage and trade. The
Dome of the Rock was added to complement Masjid al-Aqsa in 691. Numerous other
mosques and public institutions were soon established throughout the city.
The Muslim
conquest of Jerusalem under the Caliph Umar in 637 was an important moment in
the city’s history. For the next 462 years, it would be ruled by Muslims, with
religious freedom for minorities protected according to the Treaty of Umar.
As many
military officers and provincial Governors had gathered there, Umar prolonged
his sojourn in the holy city for many days and issued various necessary orders.
One day Bilal, the Prophet’s muezzin, complained to the Commander of the
Faithful that the officers treated themselves to such dainties as fowl’s meat
and white loaves, while the men could not get even ordinary food - Umar glanced
inquisitively at the officers who replied that edibles of all varieties were
cheap in that country and those white loaves and fowls’ meat cost the same
there as brown loaves and dates in Hijaz.
Umar could
not compel the officers to partake of a more frugal fare but he issued an order
to the effect that in addition to their pay and fair share of the war spoils,
the soldiers should also get free rations.
One day, at
the time of prayers, Umar requested Bilal to say the adhan. Bilal said that he
had made up his mind never to say the adhan for anyone after the Prophet, but
that he would make an exception in his favour and obey him for that only once.
So, when his well-known stentorian accents began to summon the faithful to
prayers, Bilal's resonant and sonorous cadences, painfully reminded the
Companions of the blessed times of the Prophet and melted their hearts to
tears. Abu Ubayda and Muaz ibn Jabal wept most disconsolately while Umar fell
into a fit of uncontrollable sobs. It was some time before this scene of deep
emotion and pathos turned normal.
During his
stay at Jerusalem, Umar once visited the Mosque of Aqsa and sent for Kaab the
Bishop asked him where to say the prayers. There lies a stone in this fane that
the ancient Prophets have left as a relic. It is called Sakhrah and the Jews
hold it in the same veneration as the Muslims do the Hajar Aswad (the Black
Stone). When Umar enquired from Kaab the direction in which the prayers were to
be offered, the latter pointed out Sakhrah as the Qiblah. On this Umar told him
that the Jewish faith had still a holdover his mind which had led him,
instinctively, as it were, to put off his shoes near Sakhrah. This event shows
in what light Umar regarded such ancient monuments.
To support
the above description of the religious tolerance of Umar, let me quote Sir
William Muir, a nineteenth-century British historian of early Muslim history:
Mahometan
(Muslim) tradition gives no further detail respecting this memorable visit (to
Jerusalem). But Christian writers say that Umar accompanied the Patriarch over
the city, visited the various places of pilgrimage, and graciously inquired
into their history. At the appointed hour, the Patriarch bade the Caliph
perform his orisons in the church of the Resurrection, where they chanced to
be. But he declined to pray either there or in the church of Constantine where
a carpet had been spread for him, saying kindly that if he did so his followers
would take possession of the church forever, as a place where Moslem prayer had
once been offered up. Umar also visited Bethlehem; and having prayed in the
church of the Nativity, left a rescript with the Patriarch, who accompanied him
on the pious errand, securing the Christians in possession of the building,
with the condition that not more than one Mussulman (Muslim) should ever enter
at a time.
It was
under Umar’s leadership that Islam made its largest and fastest expansion.
During his reign, Muslim forces conquered Syria, Jerusalem, Egypt, Libya, Iraq
and Persia. One ingenious means of ensuring the continued expansion of Islam
was Umar’s decision to forbid Arabs from owning any land. Thus, excluded from
acquiring wealth, they were motivated to focus on further conquests single-mindedly.
The
Visit To Jerusalem
The
anecdote about Umar’s entry into Jerusalem has remained as an immortal example
of his total adherence to Islam’s principle of equity. Because he had only one
attendant with him and only one camel to ride, they rode the camel by turns. It
happened to be the servant’s turn to ride on the day when they were to reach
Jerusalem. The people who had seen the pomp of great kings were stunned to see
the Caliph of Islam walking while his attendant sat on the camel’s back!
Fully realizing
his responsibility to his charge, Umar personally visited Iraq, Syria and Egypt
when in the year 17 A.H., a great plague swept through those countries killing
thousands of people. Reminded by one Companion about the divine admonition
against knowingly putting one’s life at risk, he answered that he was following
another Divine Command.
Another
memorable anecdote associated with Umar is about his letter. The Coptics were
Christians, but they followed a savage practice of giving a human sacrifice
once a year amidst a big festival in the summer. A beautiful maiden, dressed as
a bride, was thrown into the Nile. People felt that the sacrifice was necessary
to please the Nile, and get a big flood of water for their parched fields. If
the Nile got displeased, they thought, there would be no flood and hence no
crops.
The Coptics
asked the Muslim Governor’s permission to sacrifice a maiden as usual. He
disallowed the savage act. It so happened that the Nile had very little water
that year. Crops failed. Many of the peasants decided to leave the country. Amr
bin ‘Aas, the Governor informed Umar, at which point the Caliph sent a letter,
addressed to the Nile.
It said:
“From the servant of Allah and Commander of the
Muslims to the River of the Nile of Egypt. O Nile, if you flow of your own
will, then do not flow. But if Allah, the Almighty, controls your flow, we pray
to Him to keep you flowing.”
This letter
was thrown into the river, as directed by the Caliph. The river overflowed its
banks that year. Such a big flood had not been seen for years. The country was
once again green with crops. The peasants were happy. The savage practice of
human sacrifice came to an end forever.
The
examples of how Umar practiced Islam in letter and spirit as an individual and
as the Commander of the Faithful are too many to be compressed in a narrow
space.
From the
Hijra onward, Hazrat Umar was actively involved in every significant
development in the formative period of Islam until the revelation of the Quran
ended and the religion in its great essentials was complete. No battle was
fought, no treaty negotiated, and no administrative measure put in place,
without Umar being consulted and his advice influencing the outcome.
Umar
attained excellence in several fields - in government and administration, in
statesmanship and political craft, in the management of armies and conquests,
in Quranic scholarship and exegesis, in the Law and the principles of its
information, and devotion and servant-hood to God. It is difficult to measure,
and therefore to state succinctly, the scale of Umar’s achievements.
The New
Conquests
Umar
promised not to send the Muslim armies “into destruction”, meaning that he
would not send the armies out unless the risks were evaluated and were
considered worthy of initiating action. He promised not to keep the soldiers
away from their families for an extended period and reassured the men that
while they were away fighting for the Muslim ummah, and if they did not return,
he, the Caliph, would be the father of their children and the caretaker of
their wives. Umar believed the role of the leader was to protect the people.
Although he was the leader of a great empire, Umar never felt it necessary to
have a bodyguard. He walked the streets of Madinah like any ordinary citizen,
even at night. It was during the nights that he moved around the streets
incognito checking up on those under his protection and anonymously
distributing charity.
Umar
extended Islam’s temporal rule over Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia in what were
from a purely military standpoint, astonishing victories. Within four years
after the death of the Prophet, the Muslim state had extended its sway over all
of Syria and had, at a famous battle fought during a sandstorm near the River Yarmuk,
blunted the power of the Byzantines - whose ruler Heraclius had recently
rejected the letter from the unknown Prophet of Arabia.
Vanquishing
the Persians
The Romans
and Persians who always looked down upon the Arabs as an uncultured race viewed
with alarm the rising power of Islam and were anxious to subjugate and crush
it. The Persians sent reinforcement to the rebels of Bahrain against Islam.
They instigated Sajab, who pretended to be a Prophetess in Iraq, and marched
upon Madinah. Rustam, the famous Persian General, had sworn that he would
destroy the entire Arab race. Such designs and machinations of the Persians
warned the Muslims of the dangers, but being a spirited people, they accepted
the challenge. Hence the war was forced upon the unwilling Muslims and they
could not ignore this threat to their very existence.
The first
defeat of the Persians came as a great surprise to them as they expected little
resistance from the Arabs. They were already alarmed at their unexpected
defeats during the time of Abu Bakr. Every disaster on the battlefield only
added to the flames of Persian fury. Theirs was a vast empire, and so were
their resources. They deployed their forces and material recklessly to stem the
advance of the Arabs and crush their striking power forever. A handful of
ill-equipped Arabs were arrayed against the formidable forces of Romans and
Persians. One can hardly find in recorded history an instance where, despite
such disparities between the opposing forces, the weaker one triumphed over two
powerful opponents. It was reminiscent of the Battle of Badr.
The tempo
of war increased when Umar was elected as Caliph. Muslims were fighting on two
fronts - in Syria, they were engaged with the powerful forces of the mighty
Roman Empire and in Iraq, they were arrayed against the formidable forces of
Khosroe (Persians). Puran Dikht, who ascended the Persian throne, had appointed
Rustam as the army's Commander-in-Chief. All these initiatives could not check
the Muslim advance and the Persians under the command of Narsi were routed at
Kasker. Rustam appointed Bahman, a sworn enemy of Arabs, as the Commander of
Persian forces in Iraq. A bloody battle was fought at Beirut in 635A.D.in which
the Persians beat a hasty retreat, leaving behind many dead bodies. Muthanna,
the Muslim General, declared that he had taken part in several engagements
against the Persians in pre-Islamic days. Previously 100 Persians could
overpower 1000 Arabs, but the tables had been turned.
The battle
of Qadisiyah, fought in 635 A.D. under the command of Sa’d Abi Waqas, was
decisive since it sealed the fate of the Persian Empire in Iraq. Rustam, the
greatest war hero of Persia, had mustered a strong force against the Muslims.
The ill Muslim commander had appointed Khalid Bin Artafa in his place and
guided his movements through written instructions. A poet named Abu Mahjan
Saqfi, who was in chains for his drunkenness, implored the commander’s wife
Salma to release him for a short while so that he could take part in the
battle. He promised to return when the battle was over. His request was granted
forthwith and Abu Mahjan, with a sword in his hand, literally ran amok and
fought bitterly to the end. He put himself in chains again when the battle was
over, but Sa’d released him on knowing of his exploits.
Rustam, who
tried to escape, was killed. Umar was very anxious about the result of this
battle. He had masterminded military operations in Iraq and for hours he would
wait daily outside Madinah in hope of good news. Umar made a memorable speech
before the Madinites.
Brothers of
Islam! I am not your ruler who wants to enslave you. I am a servant of God and
His people. I have been entrusted with the heavy responsibility of running the
caliphate administration. It is my duty to make you comfortable in every way
and it will be an evil day for me if I wish you to wait on me now and then. I
want to educate you not through my precepts but by my practice.
The
Persians made their last stand in Iraq in front of Madinah, the capital. They
destroyed the bridge built on the Tigris. Such obstacles could not check the
advance of Mulsims. Sa’d, the commander of the faithful, plunged his horse into
the river. The rest of the army followed suit and they crossed the river in a
moment without disrupting their formations.
The
Persians were terrified at this unusual sight and cried out! “Demons have
come”. Saying this, they took to flight in utter confusion. A vast treasure
fell into the hands of the Muslim conquerors, including the invaluable Persian
carpet. This treasure was brought to Madinah and heaped in the courtyard of the
Mosque of the Prophet. The great Caliph burst into tears on its sight. The
audience asked him the reason for his unusual expression of grief. The Caliph
replied promptly, “This wealth was the cause of the downfall of Persians and
now it has come to us to bring our downfall.” He ordered that the wealth be
distributed among people immediately. Even that priceless carpet was not
spared; with Ali's advice, it was torn to pieces and distributed among the people.
Umar commended the high character of his soldiers who did not touch a single
souvenir out of this colossal booty.
Encountering
the Syrians
Syria was
another theatre of war, where the Muslims were arrayed against the formidable
Roman forces. Abu Bakr, during his lifetime, summoned Khalid Bin Walid, the
Sword of God, to assist the Muslims in Syria. The Syrian cities, one after
another, capitulated to the Muslims. Hems, Hama (Epiphania), Kinnisrin
(Chalcis), Aleppo and other important towns surrendered and opened their gates
to the forces of Islam. The city of Damascus which was held by a large
garrison, offered considerable resistance. One night Khalid bin Walid,
stationed on the other side of the city, scaled its walls and opened the gate.
The Muslim army entered the city from one side. Immediately the Romans offered
themselves for peace to the commander-in-chief Abu Ubaidah, who was stationed
on the other side of the city. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah who came from opposite
directions, met in the centre of the city. Abu Ubaidah asked the Muslims not to
plunder anyone as he had accepted the peace terms.
Antioch,
the capital of the Roman East, also fell to the Muslims after stubborn
resistance. The Roman Governor named Artabin, had mustered a strong force for
the defence of his province. Placing small bodies of troops at Jerusalem, Gaza
and Ramleh, he had assembled a large army in Ajnadian. The Muslims, who were
deeply concerned about these movements of the Roman forces, withdrew their
garrisons from various sectors and advanced to face Artabin. While withdrawing
from Hems, Abu Ubaidah, Commander-in-chief of the Muslim forces, asked his
Treasury Officer to return the jizyah (Protection Tax) to the inhabitants, as
they could not undertake the responsibility of the protection of their
non-Muslim subjects there. The order was immediately carried out and the whole
amount was refunded to the local inhabitants. The Christian population was so
much touched by this unusual generosity of the conquerors that they wept
bitterly and cried out “May God bring you here again.” The Jews swore in Torah
that they would resist the Romans to the last man if they ever ventured to
capture the city.
A bloody
battle ensued in the plain of Yarmuk in 634A.D. between the forces of Islam and
the Romans. The Romans had mustered a strong army of 3 lac soldiers, while the
Muslim army comprised 30 thousand unskilled and ill-equipped soldiers only. The
Muslims fought like demons and routed the Romans after a fierce conflict. More
than a hundred thousand Romans perished on the battlefield while Muslim
casualties hardly exceeded three thousand. When apprised of this crushing
defeat, Caesar cried out sorrowfully “Goodbye Syria” and he retired to
Constantinople.
The few
Roman soldiers who escaped from Yarmuk found a refuge within the walls of the
fortified city of Jerusalem. This city was garrisoned by a heavy force and
resisted for a considerable time. At last, the Patriarch sued for peace but
refused to surrender to anyone except the Caliph himself. Umar acceded to his
request and, traveling with a single attendant without escort, pomp, and pageantry,
arrived at Jabia. When he arrived in the presence of the Patriarch and his men,
he was leading the camel while the attendant was riding it. The Christian
priests and their associates were profoundly struck with this strange respect
for equality of man exhibited by the Caliph of Islam. The patriarch presented
the keys of the sacred city to the Caliph and entered the city together.
Umar
refused to offer his prayers in the church of Resurrection saying, “If I do so,
the Muslims in future might infringe the treaty, under the pretext of imitating
my example.”
Just terms
were offered to the Christians while the Samuritan Jews, who had assisted the
Muslims, were granted their properties without payment of any tax.
The
subjugation of Syria was now complete. Syria bowed under the sceptre of the
Caliphs, seven hundred years after Pompey had deposed the last of the
Macedonian kings. After their last defeat, the Romans recognised themselves
hopelessly beaten, though they continued to raid the Muslim territories. To
erect an impassable barrier between themselves and the Muslims they converted
into a veritable desert a vast tract on the frontiers of their remaining
Asiatic possessions. All cities in this doomed track were razed to the ground,
fortresses were dismantled, and the population was carried away further north.
Thus, what has been deemed to be the work of Arab Muslim hordes was the outcome
of Byzantine barbarism”. This short-sighted policy was of no avail and could
not stem the tide of Muslim advance. Iyaz, the Muslim commander, passing
through Tauras, reduced the province of Cilicia, captured it is capital Tarsus
and reached as far as the shores of the Black Sea. His name became a terror to
Romans in Asia Minor.
After
clearing Syria of the Roman forces, the Muslim army marched on Persia and
conquered Azerbaijan in 643A.D., Bostan in 643 A.D., Armenia in 644 A.D.,
Sistan in 644 A.D. and Mekran in 644 A.D. According to the celebrated historian
Billazori, the Islamic forces had reached as far as the plain of Debul in Sind.
But Tabari says that the Caliph prevented his army from making further advances
east of Mekran. The defeated Roman forces had taken refuge in Alexandria and
threatened the Muslim-conquered Syria. Hence Umar bin Aas implored the Caliph
to allow him to advance on Egypt. The request was granted, and Muslim forces
under Umar bin Aas captured Alexandria in 641-642 A.D. The Egyptian Christians,
called Copts, were treated humanely by the Muslim conquerors and were granted
landed properties.
The Arabs also
constructed a strong fleet to meet the challenge of Romans as masters of the
seas. Thus, the naval supremacy of Arabs was also established and the Roman
fleet fled before them to the Hellespont. The Muslims captured several islands
of the Greek Archipelago.
Yazdgard
tried to slow the advance of Arab troops by destroying the bridge linking the
Tigris River's western shores to Madayen. These tactics, however, proved
futile. The Arabs put their horses into the river, waded across to the other
shore and Madayen fell in 637 A.D. The treasures of the Persian capital were
now in Muslim hands. Untold amounts of gold, silver, jewels, carpets and
artifacts were captured and transported to Madinah. Included in the war booty
was an elephant that aroused a great deal of curiosity among the ladies in
Madinah.
Yazdgard
fled Madayen towards Merv, in north-eastern Persia. Realizing that the war with
the Muslims was not just a skirmish but a full-scale invasion, he called on all
Persians and their allies to defend Persia. A huge army of 150,000 was
assembled and put under the command of Mardan Shah who had already seen action
against the Arabs at the Battle of the Euphrates. To inspire the Persians,
Mardan Shah was vested with the durafsh, the national emblem of Persia. The
governor of Kufa, Ammar ibn Yassir sent this information to the Caliph and
asked for additional troops. Umar sent a corps of 30,000 under the command of
Numan ibn Muquran. Peace talks proved futile, and the two armies met at the
Battle of Nahawand. In the initial engagements, Numan ibn Muquran was seriously
wounded, but the Muslim commanders kept this fact secret. Towards the end of
the first day, the enemy lines broke, and the Muslims were victorious. Numan
did not survive his wounds and died that evening.
Persian
resistance continued from its eastern provinces. Yazdgard set himself up in
Merv and took personal command of his forces. Realizing that an injured enemy
was a dangerous enemy, Umar resolved to put an end to all Persian resistance.
From Nahawand, the Arab armies split up and mounted a multi-pronged drive
against Persian strongholds. Abi al Aas captured Persepolis. Aasim ibn Amr took
Sistan. Hakam ibn Umair conquered Makran and Baluchistan. Azerbaijan fell to
Othba ibn Farqad. Buqair ibn Abdulla subdued Armenia. A contingent under Ahnaf
ibn Qais marched on Khorasan. By the year 650 A.D., the Persian Empire was
entirely under the control of Arab armies. Yazdgard fled Persia and died in
exile.
Within a
decade after the election of Umar ibn al Khattab as the Caliph, the map of West
Asia and North Africa had been reconfigured. Madinah was now the capital of the
largest empire in the world, extending from Tripoli in North Africa to
Samarqand in Central Asia. This empire was ruled not by a king or a general but
by a revolutionary creed: “There is no deity, but God and Muhammad are His
Messenger.” The Caliph was no more than a servant of God and the keeper of
Divine Laws.
When Caliph
Umar was informed of the victories over Persia, he went to the mosque in Madinah
and addressed the people:
“O, believers! The Persians have lost their
kingdom. They cannot harm us anymore. God has made you inherit their country,
properties, and riches so that He may test you. Therefore, you should not
change your ways. Otherwise, God will bring forth another nation in place of
you. I feel anxiety for our community from our people.”
Freedom
Of Religion in Egypt
Whereas the
orthodox church of Byzantine had persecuted the Christians of Syria and Egypt
as heretics, Muslims treated the Copt community in Egypt with respect and
dignity. It is noteworthy that Coptic Patriarch Benjamin, a fugitive in the
desert for the last 12 years, was summoned by Muslim Governor (Amil) Amr ibn
al-Asi, from his hiding to resume the leadership of the Coptic church. The
victorious Muslim commander said to him:
“Resume the
government of all your churches and your people, and administer their affairs.
And if you will pray for me, that I may go to the West and Pentapolis, and take
possession of them, as I have of Egypt and return to you in safety and
speedily, I will do for you all that you shall ask of me.”
Then the
holy Benjamin prayed for Amr, and pronounced an eloquent discourse, which made
Amr and those present with him marvel and contained words of exhortation and
much profit for those who heard him. He revealed certain matters to Amr, and
departed from his presence honoured and revered.
A Benign
and Strategist Conqueror
A handful
of ill-equipped and unskilled Muslims had overthrown two of the mightiest Empires
in the world. The Prophet had infused a revolutionary spirit in the adherents
(supporters) of the new faith, who demonstrated enormous courage and tremendous
confidence in the new religion.
The wise
policy followed by Umar in the selection of his generals and the liberal terms
offered to the conquered races were instrumental in the speed of victories
registered by Muslims. Umar was a great military strategist; he issued detailed
instructions regarding the conduct of operations. A study of the history of
Tabari would reveal that Umar-the-great, sitting thousands of miles away,
guided his armies on the battlefronts and controlled their movements.
Umar’s
generosity helped win the hearts of the conquered people, which ultimately
paved the way for the conquered territories' consolidation and efficient
administration. He had strictly forbidden his soldiers not to kill the weak and
damage the shrines and places of worship. A treaty, once concluded, would be
observed in letter and spirit. Contrary to the repression and ferocity of great
conquerors like Alexander, Caesar, Tamerlane, Changiz Khan and Halaqu, Umar’s
conquests were both physical and spiritual. When Alexander conquered Sur, a
city in Syria, he ordered a general massacre and hanged one thousand respectable
citizens on the city walls.
Similarly,
when he conquered Astakher, a town in Persia, he beheaded its entire male
population. Tyrants like Changiz, Tamerlane and Halaqu were even more
ferocious. Hence, their vast Empire was crushed to pieces after their death.
But the conquest of the second Caliph of Islam was different. The humane
approach to efficient administration added to the consolidation of his Empire
in such a way that even today, after 1400 years, the countries he conquered are
still in Muslim hands.
-----
Moin Qazi is the author of the bestselling book,
Village Diary of a Heretic Banker. He has worked in the development finance
sector for almost four decades.
Other
Parts of the Article:
Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part One: Timeline
Of The Life Of Caliph Umar
Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Three: A
Paragon Of Nobility
Umar Al Farooq -
The Great Caliph - Part Four: A Pioneering Reformer
URL: https://newageislam.com/books-documents/umar-farooq-caliph-part-five-conqueror-/d/130471
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