Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Four: A Pioneering Reformer
By Moin Qazi, New Age Islam
6 January 2023
Amongst the nations before your time, there have been inspired
people(who were not Prophets), and if there is one amongst my Ummah, he is Umar
- Prophet Muhammad
A Pioneering Reformer
Umar was one of Muhammad’s earliest and staunchest supporters and had
quickly developed an administrative system of manifestly superior
effectiveness. He defined the ummah as
a continually expansive polity managed by a new ruling elite, which included
successful military commanders like Khālid ibn al-Walīd. Even after the
conquests ended, this sense of expansiveness continued to be expressed in the
way Muslims divided the world into their zone, the Dār al-Islām, and the
zone into which they could and should expand, the Dār al-Ḥarb, the abode of war. Islam
supplied the norms of Umar’s new elite as it was then understood.
Umar was a great reformer and a path-builder. The message we must take
from his life and work is that if we have to move from one century to another
successfully, we must be able to meet the manifold challenges that await us
creatively. Islam is a living faith, a dynamic religion with firm principles
and sufficient flexibility to adapt to all times and conditions. We must
continuously reinterpret and rethink the tradition of Islam in terms of
contemporary challenges.
Transparency In Administration
The success of Umar’s administration was mainly because of his strict
vigilance of the officials. When a Governor was appointed, his appointment
letter detailed his duties and privileges. This letter was publicly readout so
that people could know the terms of the appointment and could hold him
accountable for any abuse of power.
Addressing a group of Governors, he once said, “Remember, I have not
appointed you to rule over your people, but to serve them. You should set an
example with your good conduct, so that people may follow you.”
Umar took particular care to emphasize that there should not be much
distinction between the ruler and the ruled, and the people should have easy
and free access to the highest authority of the state. He insisted that
Governors live simple lives, keep no guard at their doors and be accessible to
the people at all times. Umar himself set the example for them. Whenever he
appointed a Governor, he used to draw up in writing a certificate of
investiture, which he would get witnessed by some of the emigrants or helpers.
It contained the following directions: “He must not ride on horseback, eat
white bread, nor wear fine clothes, nor set up a door between himself and those
who ought to ask of him.” He kept strict vigil over the assets of Governors
used to record the possessions at the time of their appointment, and whatever
was later acquired by them was partly or wholly confiscated.
Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, the author of the Kitab Futuh al-Buldan
(“Book of the Conquests of the Lands”), an inventory of movable and
immovable assets of the important officials was prepared at the time of his
appointment, which was updated from time to time. Any unusual increase in
assets had to be properly accounted and explained for. All the high officials
had to report to the Caliph every year at the time of hajj and according
to Abu Yusuf, the author of Kitabul Khiraj, a treatise on taxation and
fiscal problems of the state, any dissatisfied individual could complain to the
errant official irrespective of his rank. The complaints had to be disposed of
in a fixed timeframe. Even the highest officials of the state were not spared
if the complaints were found to be genuine. Once a person complained that a
certain Governor had flogged him for no fault of his. The matter was enquired
into, and the Governor was publicly flogged with the same number of stripes for
his errancy.
Muhammad bin Muslamah Ansari, a person of unquestionable integrity, was
appointed as the roving investigator, who visited different countries and
enquired into public complaints. Once a complaint was lodged with the Caliph
that Sa’d bin Waqas, Governor of Kufa, had constructed a palace there. Umar at
once despatched Muhammad Ansari, who pulled down a portion of the palace that
hindered the easy entry of the public. On another complaint, Sa’d was deposed
from his post. The Caliph received a report that Ayaz bin Ganam, the Amil (Governor)
of Egypt, had kept a gatekeeper for his house. Muhammad Ansari who was
immediately sent to Egypt, found the report to be correct and brought the
Governor to Madinah. The Caliph humiliated him publicly.
Amr ibn al-Asi had his possessions confiscated by the Caliph when he was
Governor of Egypt. Similarly, the Caliph seized 12000 dirhams from Abu
Hurairah, who was once Governor of al-Bahrain.
At times, a commission was appointed by the Caliph to enquire into
various charges. Such strict measures adopted by Umar ensured an efficient and
transparent administration in his vast state. Even the officials working
thousands of miles away from Madinah could not dare to do anything against the
interests of the people and the state. None could ever contemplate incurring
the displeasure of the iron Caliph.
Innovations In Agriculture
Water scarcity converted the barren Arabian Peninsula into a vast desert
that has never yielded substantial agricultural produce. Her scattered
population always had to fall back on a foreign supply of foodgrains to
supplement the dates and the little corn grown in their lands. Agriculture in
Arabia, which has had the distinction of being the cradle of the world's great
prophets, has been very primitive and was confined to those tracts where water
was available in the form of springs. Taif, a hilly place, is known as the
garden of Hejaz, where, besides grapes, apples, figs, pomegranates, and dates,
wheat is also cultivated. With its springs and wells, Madina is a green spot in
a vast desert, and dates, wheat and barley are grown there.
The great Prophet of Islam had left behind him a group of selfless
people whose sagacity and magnanimity, faith and unity, the spirit of sacrifice
and service won for them laurels not only on the battle-fields but in almost
all branches of human activity. Agriculture was no exception, and as early as
during the reign of the second Caliph of Islam, Arabs had made considerable
progress in agriculture and had introduced many beneficial measures for its
advancement in their dominions including Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Hejaz.
During the reign of the second Caliph, the Arab conquest was extended
over Asia and Africa. Arabs were confronted with new problems which the
administration of such a vast empire had brought in its wake. The Arabs adapted
native techniques used for handling such issues in their dominions.
Umar had fixed the land revenue rates according to the land type. He
charged four dirhams on one jarib of sown wheat, while he charged 2 dirhams for
a similar plot of barley. Nothing was set for pastures and uncultivated land.
In this way, he systematized revenues that, before his time, were charged
haphazardly. Different rules were framed regarding the revenues of Egypt, whose
agricultural output depended on the floods of the river Nile. According to
reliable historical sources, the annual revenues of Iraq amounted to 860
million dirhams, an amount which was never exceeded after the death of the
great Caliph. However, he was very lenient in levying them. The main reason
behind the easy realisation of revenue was that the people had become
prosperous.
He introduced many far-reaching reforms. One of these was the abolition
of landlords or zamindari and the subsequent disappearance of the evils being
wrought on the poor tenants by the vested landed interests. When the Romans
conquered Syria and Egypt, they confiscated the land from the soil tillers and
allotted it to the nobles, churches and members of the royal family, and the
armed forces.
In general, Umar’s solution was to leave the conquered peoples in possession
of their lands and their religion in exchange for the payment of tribute which
was to be disbursed by the Muslim government to its armies and citizens. To
institutionalize this policy, a divan, or register, was drawn up, which
regularized the stipends that Muslims were to be paid according to religious
and tribal principles. Relations between Muslims and non-Muslims were further
stabilized by exempting the latter from military service and guaranteeing them
protection in return for the taxes they paid.
After the conquest of these countries, Umar returned the land to those
local inhabitants who were the rightful owners. The just and benevolent Caliph
was exceptionally generous to the tillers of the soil and he even issued strict
orders that non-natives and Arab soldiers who had intruded into these countries
should be granted land for cultivation purposes. Such steps by the second
caliph of Islam restored confidence among the local inhabitants, gave a great
impetus to the advancement of agriculture in those countries, and contributed
to the enormous increase in agricultural production. The tenants became
prosperous and their standard of living was raised, which led to the easy
realization of land revenues by the custodians of the State.
It was those generous and liberal tax policies of the second Caliph that
the Christian Qibtis of Egypt, who were farmers, always sided with Muslim Arabs
in preference to Roman Christians. He designed schemes for the advancement of
agriculture and constructed irrigation canals, wells and tanks in his vast
dominions. He established a public welfare department that monitored and
expanded these works. The famous historian Allama Maqrizi says that more than
one lac and twenty thousand labourers were employed in such works throughout
the year in Egypt alone. Several canals were constructed in Khuzistan and Ahwaz
during this period.
Sound Governance
To meet the necessity of the public and to govern well, Umar also
introduced the following reformation:
·
Institution of hisbah. This is an institution to maintain law and
order in the marketplace. It is headed by an officer known as muhtasib.
·
A particular office for investigating complaints that reach the Caliph.
A very reliable and trustworthy person is appointed for the post.
·
A bait al-mal or Treasury House.
Umar separated the judicial and executive duties to specialize in the
management of both effectively. Special judges (Qadi) were appointed to
perform the function of the judiciary who were distinct and separate from the
role of the Governor of the province and territories, and Qadi’s were
placed under the supervision of the Caliph Separation of power can give the
judicial benefit management and enable the administration of the court to run
efficiently. The ideological system suggested by Umar was among the best, with
the separation of power encouraging leaders and the people to use power and
authority correctly.
Further, strategic planning in economic systems was also introduced,
providing the most benefit to the people and state and, in due respect, to his
responsibility and accountability to Allah. Caliph Umar inspired the best
economic systems. He introduced a variety of revenue systems for countries,
which formed the foundation of the land tenure system.
The different systems of land tenure that were prevalent in the Muslim
Empire during the caliphate of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab were:
·
Iqta or Individual ownership system. The grant
of iqtas conferred proprietary rights on the beneficiaries such that an Iqta
became Iqta Tamlik, where the owners were, free to use the land in
any way they liked.
·
Hima or collective land-ownership system. Hima
was a vital institution prevalent at the time of Umar. It means that the land
is owned by one or more tribes.
·
Crown lands and state landlordism. With the conquest of different
countries, state landlordism also flourished. Under this system, land belonged
to the state and cultivators were the tenants of the state. The tenant did not
enjoy proprietary rights and the land could not be transferred or sold by the
occupants.
·
Private landlordism. This was first practiced by the Prophet who agreed
with the Jews and Khaybar.
·
Peasant-proprietorship. In this system, the owner tilled the land. This
system was common in Arabia, especially in those parts that were arable and
fertile
Umar also introduced land reform following the conquest of agricultural
countries like Iraq, Iran and Egypt. Umar took a bold step in abolishing
absentee landlordism and changing the Islamic Empire's whole pattern of land
ownership.
Moreover, Umar’sprinciple of al-shura best explains the efficacy
of collective governance. Al-shura is an Arabic term and means mutual
consultation. This principle demonstrates many vital values for governance,
including transparency, accountability, respect, empowerment, freedom of
expression, the dignity of the human individual and cooperation all together in
one practice. In addition, it proves that Islamic governance appreciates and
welcomes other parties and entities in its decision-making system. These
entities kept on expanding and growing, with their members consisting of
leaders from various tribes, who were proven to be qualified, including ‘Ali
Ibn ’Abi Talib, ‘Uthman Ibn al-‘Affan, Talhah, ‘Ubaydillah, al-Zubayr ‘Awwam,
Sa‘d ’Abi Waqqas, and ‘Abdul Rahman Ibn ‘Auf. They were the meeting members,
especially when deciding on important matters. Caliph Umar gave a message to
them, saying, “I find out that all of you are the leaders of your community and
all matters that need to be decided stop upon all of you”
This principle and practice also stipulate `Rida Al Awam’, which is
popular consent; `ijtihad jama`i’; which is collective deliberation and `Mas`Uliyah
Jama’iyyah’, which is a collective responsibility, as a prerequisite to the
establishment of Islamic effective governance.
Umar’s Initiatives In Professionalizing Administration
Umar was an excellent administrator. He established a Shura (consultative
council) and sought advice on matters of state. He divided the far-flung empire
into the provinces of Makkah, Madinah, Syria, Jazira (the fertile region
between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq), Basra, Khorasan, Azerbaijan,
Persia and Egypt. A Governor, answerable to the Caliph, was appointed for each
province. The responsibilities and the limits of each Governor’s authority were
clearly defined. Governors who misused their office were severely punished. The
executive and the judiciary were separated and Qadis were appointed to
administer justice.
Appointing a Governor in the Basra province, Umar wrote to him, “Listen,
you are not appointed to rule over the necks of the people, but to guide them
on the right path, which you know from the Qur’ān and the Sunnah of the
Prophet.” While the governor was the head of provincial administration,
Collector (Amil) was the head of the finance and revenue department.
The Caliph was the Chief Judge of the Empire. There were also Qadis in
the provinces assisted by a team of judicial experts in Shari’ah. Besides Qur’anic
injections and Sunnah in judicial matters, Ijma (collective
opinion) was also allowed.
Umar was open-minded accepted, and adopted what was good in other
civilizations. Where applicable, he learned to adopt the conquered people's
technologies and administrative practices. His achievements are codified into
the Await – i-Umar, the forty-one
initiatives of Umar. Windmills were in extensive use in Persia at the time and
Umar ordered the construction of windmills in several Arab cities, including
Madinah.
When Abu Hurairah returned with a large booty from Bahrain, there were
differences among the Madinites as to how it was to be divided. Khalid bin
Walid, observing the divisions, suggested to the Caliph that a documentation
department be set up in Madinah similar to the ones he had seen in Persia.
Caliph Umar enquired about the Persian practices and ordered a department of
documentation after satisfying himself that they could indeed be applied to the
Caliphate. As most Arabs were illiterate, he hired Persian scribes to man this
new department. The writers documented each item of booty and the claims on
each so that the Caliph could equitably divide it among the claimants. Later,
the department was expanded to document all treasury and army transactions.
Following the example of Umar,the compilation and maintenance of documentation
became an honoured profession among Muslims, Caliphs and Sultans alike, down to
the Ottomans in modern times, kept this tradition alive.
During the caliphate of Umar, Islamic jurisprudence and its
methodologies based on the Qur’an, Sunnah, Ijma and Qiyas were
fully established. The edicts of Umar reflecting the consensus of the
Companions provided the foundation for the Maliki School of Fiqh
(jurisprudence) that emerged a hundred years later.
Streamlining The Armed Forces
The conquest of such a vast area in such a relatively short time soon
created challenging administrative problems for Umar. Since the Arabs had no
experience as rulers of an empire, they were forced to rely significantly on
the bureaucracies created by the Byzantine and Sassanian governments.
Nevertheless, Umar is credited with introducing several new administrative
practices and institutions which,in conjunction with the customary practice of
the conquered lands, gave stability to the Arab occupation and allowed the
conquests to maintain their momentum.
Umar established garrison cities, first in Iraq and later in Egypt, to
administer the newly conquered territory and to serve as bases for the invasion
of Persia. In this way, Basra and Kufa were founded by Umar in 635, both of
which became important centres of Islamic civilization.
At the same time as Umar’s armies were achieving victory in Persia, still,
another army was invading Egypt. Between 639 and 642, the Arabs succeeded in
driving the Byzantines from Egypt and establishing a Muslim government there.
Again, Umar’s policy of establishing new garrison cities was followed by the
founding of al-Fustât, later to become Cairo.
With astonishing speed, Umar spread Arab Muslim rule from Persia to
Egypt. He forged a remarkable unity in the empire by appointing provincial
officials loyal to him and his principles and setting a stern example of piety
and morality in the capital. He is celebrated in Arabic historiography for his
unaffected, rough manner and devotion to his religion - the prototype of the
unspoiled Arab ruler.
A Model Revenue System
Umar paid great attention to improving the state finances, which were
placed on a sound footing. He had established the “Diwan” or the finance
department to which the revenues administration was entrusted.The land was
surveyed and agriculture was encouraged. Old canals were excavated and new ones
built. Large areas of land were brought
under cultivation. Roads were laid out and were regularly patrolled. A
traveller could move safety from Egypt to Khorasan in Central Asia.
The vast territories of West Asia and North Africa were welded into a
free trade zone. Trade fostered prosperity. Education was encouraged and
teachers paid. The study of the Qur’an, hadith, language, literature,
writing and calligraphy received patronage. Umar was himself a poet of repute
and a noted orator. Over 4,000 mosques were built during the caliphate of Umar.
The revenue of the commonwealth was derived from three sources (1)
Zakat, or the tax levied on a gradual scale on all Muslims possessing
means, (2) Kharaj, or the land tax levied on dhimmis, and (3) Jizyah
or capitation tax. The last two taxes for which the western historians have
much condemned the Muslims were realised in the Roman and Sasanid (Persian)
Empires. The Muslims only followed the old precedents in this respect. The
taxes realised by the non-Muslims were far less burdensome than those realised
by the Muslims. Islam, which preached a socialist type of state, laid greater
emphasis on the equitable and fair distribution of wealth. The hoarding of
wealth was against the teachings of Islam. The second Caliph scrupulously followed
these tenets. He founded a Baitul Mal (Public treasury) whose primary
function was the distribution rather than wealth accumulation.
The Caliph himself took very little from the Baitul Mal. His
ancestral occupation was business. Naturally, he had to be paid some honorarium
for his holy office. The matter was referred to the special committee in which
the opinion of Ali was accepted that the Caliph should get as much honorarium
from the Baitul Mal as would suffice for the necessities of an ordinary
citizen.
The Caliph fixed land revenue rates according to the land type. While he
charged four dirhams for one Jarib of wheat, he charged two dirhams for
a similar plot of barley. Nothing was set for the pastures and uncultivated
lands. The Jerib or Djerib is a traditional unit
of land measurement in the Middle East and southwestern Asia. It is a unit of area
used to measure landholdings. In this way, he systematised the fixation
of revenues, which, before his time, was charged haphazardly. Different rules
were framed for the revenues of Egypt, whose agricultural output depended on
the flood of the Nile.
According to reliable historical sources, the annual revenue of Iraq
amounted to 860 million dirhams, an amount which never exceeded after the death
of the great Caliph. However, he was very lenient in his realisation. The main
reason behind this easy realisation of the state money was that his people had
become very prosperous.
Umar introduced far-reaching reforms in the agricultural sector, which
we do not find even in the most civilized countries in modern times. One of
these was the abolition of zamindari (landlordism), which brought
freedom for tenants from exploitation. When the Romans conquered Syria and
Egypt, they confiscated the lands of the tillers of the soil and allotted these
to the army, nobles, churches and the members of the royal family. On the
conquest of these countries, Umar returned these properties to the local
inhabitants who were the rightful owners of the land. The just and benevolent
Caliph was exceptionally generous to the local tillers of the soil and even
issued strict orders that no other persons, including the Muslim soldiers who
were spread all over these countries, should be granted any piece of land for
cultivation purposes. Such steps by the Caliph restored confidence among the
local population and gave great impetus to agriculture in these countries. This
resulted in an enormous increase in agricultural output. The tenancy became
prosperous, and their standard of living was much raised. It led to the easy
realisation of land revenues by the custodians of the state.
The liberal policy followed by the Arabs in the fixation on revenues and
their land reforms immensely helped their military conquests. Due to this
liberal policy of the second Caliph, the Christian Copts of Egypt who were
farmers always sided with the Muslim Arabs in preference to Roman Christians.
The Caliph was not content with just these reforms. He worked out beneficial
schemes for the advancement of agriculture and constructed irrigation canals,
wells and tanks in his vast dominions. He established a public welfare
department that looked after such construction works and furthered these
beneficial schemes. The celebrated historian Allama Maqrizi says that more than
one lac and twenty thousand labourers were continually employed in such works
throughout the year in Egypt alone. Several canals were constructed in
Khuzistan and Ahwaz during this period. A canal called “Nahr-Amirul Momineen”
connected the Nile with the Red Sea was constructed to ensure quick grain
transport from Egypt to the holy land.
Establishment Of Autonomous Institutions
It was during Umar’s caliphate that Muslim religious and political
institutions arose which were to be the model for future generations. Among
these were: the dīwān (‘stipend register’), a form of the welfare state
by which annual stipends were paid to all Muslims from the public treasury;
regulations for non-Muslim subjects (dhimmi); military garrisons which later
became the great cities of Islam, e.g. Kūfā and Fustat; the office of Qāḍi
(judge); religious ordinances such as obligatory nightly prayers in the month
of Ramaḍān; civil and penal codes; the Hijra calendar; and the standardization
of the text of the Qur’ān.
One of the reforms to the political administration under Umar’s reign
was the inception of a consultative assembly. Civil and social administration
reforms during Umar’s era provide a compelling exemplar for the fact that his
actions enabled the Islamic caliphate to shape itself into the ideal Ummah based
on the Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet
Umar’s Diverse Initiatives For Improving The Prosperity Of The Kingdom
And The Welfare Of The Citizens.
·
Repaired old bridges and roads and new ones were built. A population
census was conducted on the lines of the Chinese in the Tang dynasty.
·
SuggestedAadhan (Muslim call to prayer) to the Prophet on the
lines of what he saw in a dream.
·
Established Baitul Mal (State Treasury).
·
Established courts and instituted the office of judgeship. Created the
office of Qadi (title Hakim u Shara). Appointed special Judges in
Palestine and Damascus to lead prayers and administer justice. Fixed salaries
for judges (Zaib bin Thabit was a salaried judge in Madinah), made the
judiciary autonomous from the executive branch of the government.
·
Introduced Islamic calendar starting with the era of Hijra (AH), the
first day of the lunar year in which emigration took place, namely 16th July
622. Introduced Old Age Pensions.
·
Founded military cantonments (Amsar) at Kufa (18AH-640), Basra
(17AH-639), and Fustat. Nominated junior officers such as Aarif and
commanders of the marches. Built frontier fortresses (Ar. Hisn).
·
Instituted the congregational prayer of Tarawih, during Ramadan.
·
Set punishment for drunkenness& adultery at eighty lashes.
·
Adopted the title of Ameer ul Mu’mineen (Commander of the
Faithful) instead of Khalifa Rasulullah.
·
Fixed cash salaries for army officers, soldiers and volunteers, Muslims
and non-Muslims alike.
·
Established the department of finance under the name Diwan
(Registrar). A register was kept of all persons, men, women and children
(Muslim & non-Muslims) entitled to stipends. Stipends were assigned
according to the priority of conversion to Islam and affinity, and service
rendered to the Apostle of Allah on battlefields.
·
Conducted census of the population for distribution of revenues.
·
Established tithe on agricultural production for distribution to the
poor (except cereals).
·
Taxed agricultural production generated by river water.
·
Established the prison houses. Purchased the house of Safwan bin Umayya
for 4000 dirhams, and converted it into a prison house.
·
Made it compulsory for soldiers to wear the metal jacket. Soldiers are
to be repatriated home after four months of war duty on temporary leave.
·
Started nocturnal patrolling to ascertain the welfare of the population.
Introduced night watches.
·
Created the office of Sahib us-Shurta (Captain of the Guard), and
re-organized the police department.
·
Established spy agency. Started muster rolls (inspection of the
soldiers)
·
Established Majlis Shura (consultative body of trusted advisors)
·
Constructed caravansaries on the road between Makkah and Madinah
·
Established daily allowances for poor Christians and Jews.
·
Initiated compilation of Qur’an under the mentorship of Abu Bakr.
·
The established principle of Qiyas (analogical reasoning) in
Islamic jurisprudence.
·
Introduced the pronouncement of ‘As-Salatu Khairum Min Naum’ in
daybreak (Fajr) prayer.
·
Declared three pronouncements of divorce without a prescribed period,
inadmissible.
·
Declared specific punishment for lampooning.
·
Levied zakat (obligatory social tax) on horses sold in trading.
·
Instituted a system of waqf (religious endowments) and donated
his own land for this purpose.
·
Introduced the practice of the Friday sermon.
·
Established stipends for imams and muezzins.
·
Forbade mentioning a woman by name in poetry.
·
Levied zakat (poor tax) instead of jizyah (capitation tax)
on the Christian tribe of Banu Tughlab.
·
Started allowances for orphan children, as well as the poor and
disabled.
·
Issued an ordinance that no Arab should be made a slave. An important
step towards the abolition of slavery.
·
Established aStatearchive for the safe custody and preservation of the
records of the Caliphate.
·
Introduced a postal system to receive up-to-date reports from the
battlefront, as also communications from the soldiers to their families.
·
Created the office of Hajib (Chamberlain).
·
Constructed a network of canals in Iraq, and appointed special officers
for their supervision. Re-excavated a disused canal in Egypt (between the Nile
and the Red Sea, which remained navigable for eighty years. The canal was
called Khalij Ameer ul Mu’mineen). Built two dams in Makkah after
floodwater penetrated Masjid al-Haram.
·
Ordered mensuration of land, field by field in Syria, Iraq and Persia
and fixed assessment on a uniform basis. This land survey (Ar. yamsah)
gives the area of land, quality of the soil, and nature of produce.
·
Divided conquered lands into provinces and appointed Ameers (Governors).
Lands in the conquered countries were held by the State; income was distributed
to people.
·
Introduced the art of coinage (a silver dirham with inscription Alhamdulillah,
or Muhammad Rasulullah, or La Ilaha illala Wahdahu.)
·
Forbade the sale of holdings and agricultural lands in the conquered
countries to ensure the prosperity of the agricultural classes. Also, no Muslim
could acquire land from natives of the soil.
·
Promulgated Covenant of Umar (outlining fiscal, religious, and
civil regulations for non-Muslim subjects).
·
Appointed teachers in every country whose job it was to instruct people
in the teachings of the Qur’an. Founded schools and set up endowments for their
upkeep in every part of the empire. Education was made compulsory both for boys
and girls.
Army Reforms
In the early days of Islam, there was no standing army. On the occasion
of any battle, contingents were raised from the various tribes and these were
disbanded when the battle was over. No regular salaries were paid. Those who
fought were compensated by distributing the spoils of war among them.
Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a State
Department. This reform was introduced in 637. A beginning was made with the
Quraysh and the Ansars and the system was gradually extended to the whole of
Arabia. A register of all adults who could be called to war was prepared, and a
scale of salaries was fixed.
The scale was:
·
Those who had fought in the battle of Badr 5,000 dirhams.
·
Those who had fought in the battle of Uhud 4,000 dirhams.
·
Those who had migrated before the conquest of Makkah 3,000 dirhams.
·
Those who had embraced Islam at the time of the conquest of Makkah 2,000
dirhams
·
Those who had fought in the battles of Yermuk or Qadissiya 2,000
dirhams.
·
For the Yamanites 400 dirhams
·
Those who had fought after the battles of Yermuk and Qadissiya 300
dirhams.
·
The rest 200 dirhams
·
All men registered were liable to military service. They were divided
into two categories, namely:
·
Those who formed the regular standing army; and
·
Those who lived in their homes, but were liable to be called to the
columns whenever needed.
Important Initiatives For Effective Functioning Of Military Logistics
·
For army administration, Umar established military centres which were
called ‘Jund’. These centers were set up at Madinah, Kufa, Basra, Mosul,
Fustat, Damascus, Jordan and Palestine. At these centres, barracks were built
for the residence of troops. Big stables were constructed where four thousand
fully equipped horses were kept ready at every centre for service at short
notice. All records about the army were kept at military centres.
·
In addition to military centres, cantonments were established in big
towns and places of strategic importance.
Under the Army Department, there was a separate Commissariat Department.
All the food stores were collected at one place, and from there disbursed on
the first of every month.
Pay and Bhatta were disbursed at different times. The pay was paid at
the beginning of the Moharram. The Bhatta was paid in spring and some extra
allowances were paid during the harvesting season.
Every tribal unit had its leader called Arifs. Such units under Arifs
were grouped and each group was under a Commander called Umar-ul-Ashar.
Promotions in the army were made on the strength of the length of
service or exceptional merit.
Expeditions were undertaken according to seasons. Expeditions in cold
countries were undertaken during the summer and in hot countries in winter. In
spring, the troops were generally sent to lands that had a salubrious climate
and a good pasturage.
Much thought was given to sanitation in the layout of cantonments and
the construction of barracks. Special provisions were made for roads and
streets in cantonments, and Umar issued instructions prescribing the width of
roads and streets.
Incentives For Army Men
·
When the army was on the march, it always halted on Fridays. When on the
march, the day’s march was never allowed to be so long as to debilitate the
troops. The stages were selected concerning the availability of water and other
provisions.
·
Leave of absence was given to army men at regular intervals. The troops
stationed at far-off places were given leave once a year and sometimes twice.
·
Each army corps was accompanied by an officer of the treasury, an
Accountant, dhimmi, and several interpreters besides several physicians
and surgeons.
·
Umar issued instructions laying stress on the teaching of four things to
the soldiers, namely: horse-racing; archery; walking barefoot, and swimming.
·
On the battlefield, the army was divided into sections. These sections
were: Qalb or the centre; every soldier was required to keep a personal
inventory of essential items. These included needles, cotton, twine, scissors,
and a feeding bag.
Catapults were used extensively in siege operations. Under Umar, another
machine employed in siege operations was Dabbabah. It was a wooden tower that
moved on wheels and consisted of several floors. The tower was wheeled up to
the foot of the fort under siege, and then the walls were pierced by stone
throwers’ wall-piercers and archers who manned the Dabbabah.
Suitable arrangements were made for the construction of roads and
bridges. These operations were usually performed by the conquered people under
the supervision of the Muslim army. A remarkable feature of the army
organization under Umar was that he had complete control over the army at all
times as if he were present in person in every field. Espionage and
intelligence services in the army were well organized. Reporters were attached
to every unit, and they kept the Caliph fully informed about everything about
the military.
Justice In Handling Conquered Territories
Umar ruled more than 14 hundred years ago. The total area of his
caliphate was around 23 lakh square miles continuously expanding its frontiers.
To rule over such a big caliphate stretched from Libya to Makran and from Yemen
to Armenia,Umar had to establish an entirely new administrative system. For the
Arabs, it was for the first time that such a central government was
established.
Umar believed in Shura and what today we call the devolution of power.
He would not decide without the consultation of the assembly of the greatest
companions people were also consulted on matters of special significance.
He used to say: "There is no concept of a caliphate without
consultation". The roots of modern democracy can be seen in the
administration of Um of Umara time when the whole world was ruled by despotic
kings and emperors.
Supervision of Governors
Umar divided the whole country into provinces and smaller units. He
followed a very strict standard for the appointment of Governors and took
particular care to appoint men of approved integrity to high offices under the
state.
He kept a watch over them like a hawk, and as soon as any lapse on their
part came to his notice, immediate action was taken. Before assuming his
responsibility, a Governor was required to declare his assets and a complete
inventory of his possessions was prepared and kept in record.
If an unusual increase was reported in the assets of a Governor, he was
immediately called to account and the unlawful property was confiscated by the
state. At the time of appointment, a Governor was required to pledge: (1) that
he would not ride a Turkish horse; (2) that he would not wear fine clothes; (3)
that he would not eat sifted flour; (4) that he would not keep a porter at his
door; and (5) that he would always keep his door open to the public. This is
how it was ensured that Governors and Principal Officers would behave like
common people and not like some extraordinary or heavenly creatures.
The Governors were required to come to Makkah on the occasion of the
Hajj. In public assembly, Hazrat Umar would invite all those who had any
grievance against any office to present the complaint. In the event of
complaints, inquiries were made immediately and grievances redressed on the
spot.
The caliph also established a special office for the investigation of
complaints against the Governors. The department was under the charge of
Muhammad bin Maslamah Ansari, a man of undisputed integrity. In important
cases, Muhammad bin Maslamah was deputed by the caliph to proceed to the spot,
investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an inquiry commission was
constituted to investigate the charge. On occasions, the officers against whom
complaints were received were summoned to Madinah and put to explanation by the
caliph himself.
-----
Moin Qazi is the author of the bestselling book, Village Diary of a
Heretic Banker. He has worked in the development finance sector for almost four
decades.
Other Parts of the Article:
Umar Al Farooq -
The Great Caliph - Part One: Timeline Of The Life Of Caliph Umar
Umar Al Farooq -
The Great Caliph - Part Three: A Paragon Of Nobility
URL: https://newageislam.com/books-documents/umar-farooq-caliph-reformer/d/128813
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