Sheikh Muhammad Ikram’s Analysis of Religious Harmony in Mughal India
By Dr. Zafar Darik Qasmi, New Age Islam
31 October 2025
Abstract:
Akbar adopted the policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace for all) to ensure equality and harmony among all communities. He appointed Hindus to high positions, removed the Jizya and pilgrimage taxes, and promoted justice without discrimination. Sheikh Muhammad Ikram explained that this policy was not new — it followed earlier examples from Muhammad bin Qasim and Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. Akbar also encouraged cultural exchange between Hindus and Muslims, especially in science, medicine, and literature. Many Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic, influencing Islamic civilization. Later, movements like Chaitanya’s Vaishnava revival shaped Bengal’s religious and literary life, showing both harmony and conflict. Sheikh Ikram concluded that Indian civilisation thrived through tolerance, learning, and cooperation between faiths. His analysis proves that Mughal rule was marked by inclusiveness and respect rather than oppression, a lesson still relevant today.
Main Points:
1. Akbar’s Sulh-i-Kul promoted peace, tolerance, and equal rights for all religious communities in India.
2. He abolished Jizya and pilgrimage taxes, ensuring justice and removing discrimination from governance.
3. Hindu and Muslim scholars exchanged knowledge in mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and literature.
4. The Chaitanya Movement influenced Muslims, blending devotional culture and challenging religious boundaries in Bengal.
5. Sheikh Ikram viewed Mughal India as a model of coexistence, cultural respect, and mutual progress.
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Akbar’s System of Government
Akbar took control of the government in 1556 CE. It is well known that during his reign, Islam appeared to weaken, and historians have mentioned many reasons for this. However, to manage the affairs of the state, Akbar adopted the principle of “Sulh-i-Kul” — meaning peace and tolerance towards all.
Although many people criticised this policy, Sheikh Muhammad Ikram explained it in a balanced way. He wrote:
“The principle of Sulh-i-Kul, which Jahangir so greatly praised, was not a completely new idea in the history of Islamic India. As far as religious tolerance and giving people of all communities a share in the government is concerned, Muhammad bin Qasim, the conqueror of Sindh, had already followed it completely. Similarly, in Kashmir, the reign of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin is remembered for this very policy of peace and tolerance. The only difference was one degree — no doubt Akbar gave it a much wider scope and applied it right from the start of his rule.
His first marriage with a Rajput princess took place in 1562 CE, and soon after, Raja Bhagwan Das and Raja Man Singh were appointed to high government positions. The Jizya tax was abolished in 1564 CE, and the pilgrimage tax was removed the following year. At that time, powerful religious figures such as Makhdum-ul-Mulk and Sadr-us-Sudur held great influence at court, yet no historian, including Badayuni, has mentioned any opposition from them.
It is true that because of this policy, Muslims lost some of their earlier political importance, and non-Muslims became part of the administration. This created some complications, and in some regions, Hindus took undue advantage of this tolerance. But since these measures were mainly political and administrative rather than religious, and since similar examples existed earlier — for instance under Sher Shah Suri and his successors — Muslim nobles and scholars did not oppose them. As a result, the principle of Sulh-i-Kul became a part of the Mughal system, which continued, with some changes, even after Akbar.”
(Rood-e-Kausar, pp. 85-86)
It can therefore be said that Akbar’s policy aimed to govern all communities together. His belief was that Hindus, like Muslims, should also receive honour and high positions so that justice could prevail and peace be maintained in the country. This shows that the policy of Sulh-i-Kul was not something wrong or objectionable, because similar examples are found even before Akbar’s time.
Even today, rulers should adopt this policy as their guiding principle so that no injustice or intolerance may exist towards any community.
Interest in Hindu Civilisation and Arts
Sheikh Muhammad Ikram discussed in detail the Hindus’ knowledge, civilisation, and arts, and the relations between Muslims and Hindus in this regard.
He wrote that many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic. He mentioned:
“The first Indian book translated into Arabic was Siddhānta in 771 CE. A learned Hindu mathematician from Sindh brought this book to Baghdad as part of a delegation. By order of the Caliph, an Arab mathematician translated it into Arabic. It was a book on astronomy and became known as As-Sind-Hind.
Similarly, in mathematics, Arabs and later Western scholars benefited greatly from Indian knowledge. The Arabs themselves said that they learned the method of writing numerical figures from the Hindus — which is why they called them Hind numerals or Arabic numerals.
Many medical works were also translated into Arabic, including the famous books of Sushruta and Charaka. Several philosophical and moral works were likewise translated. Among the most famous are Kalila wa Dimna and Budasaf wa Bilauhar, which are counted among the greatest books in the world.
Kalila wa Dimna is a translation of the Sanskrit Panchatantra. It was first translated into Persian during the Sassanid rule and later, in the second century AH, into Arabic by Abdullah bin al-Muqaffaʿ. The original Persian translation was lost, but the Arabic version survived.
The popularity of this book can be judged from the fact that its moral and symbolic stories became beloved in both East and West. Budasaf wa Bilauhar tells the story of the birth, upbringing, and teachings of Gautama Buddha, presented in the form of parables and moral tales. The book became so popular among religious circles that Christians attributed it to one of their saints, while some Muslims claimed it was written by one of their own imams.
In the Rasāʾil Ikhwān al-Ṣafā — a semi-religious and semi-philosophical work of the 4th Islamic century — several chapters are based on it. Apart from this, many Buddhist works were also translated into Arabic.
Arab writers such as Ibn-al-Nadim, al-Ashʿari, and Shahrastani wrote special chapters on Indian religions and philosophy. Contemporary Islamic literature also mentions Buddhist monks and Hindu yogis in great detail.”
(Āab-e-Kausar, pp. 32–35)
From these historical facts, it becomes clear that the relations between Hindus and Muslims in India were very cordial. All communities were treated with brotherhood and respect.
Today, Muslim rulers are often accused of having been against Hindus or suppressing them, but the facts are entirely opposite. The truth is that such accusations are politically motivated. Any fair-minded person who studies history without prejudice will see that Muslim rulers displayed remarkable tolerance and broad-mindedness. They provided opportunities for the growth of Hindu culture, religion, language, and literature.
Even today, this spirit of harmony and mutual respect should be revived.
Hindu Revivalist Movements
During the Mughal period, a movement arose that deeply affected the Muslims of Bengal — the Chaitanya Movement or Vaishnava Movement.
Sheikh Muhammad Ikram wrote:
“Chaitanya was born in 1486 CE. He later engaged in debates with Muslim saints on the concept of monotheism. His methods showed some resemblance to Sufi practices. Among his close and influential followers were several men who learned Arabic and Persian, who held important positions in the Muslim court of Bengal.
Two Brahmin brothers, Rup and Sanatan, were particularly prominent. Vaishnava biographers state that their fame reached Akbar himself, and that Akbar visited Mathura in 1573 CE to meet them (although historians differ on this point). It is, however, certain that Bengal’s Mughal governor, Man Singh, was a great admirer of Chaitanya.
According to Sir Jadunath Sarkar, the Chaitanya Movement received strong support from the Rajput rulers of Rajasthan. The magnificent Govindji Temple in Vrindavan, one of the grandest temples of the time, was built by Man Singh at the cost of one crore rupees in 1590 CE under the guidance of Rup and Sanatan.”
(Rood-e-Kausar, pp. 494–495)
Regarding the influence of this movement on Muslims, Sheikh Ikram wrote:
“Some people say that, like Baba Nanak’s teachings, this movement was an attempt to unite Hinduism and Islam. In reality, it was not so. Its purpose was not, like the early Sikh or Kabir movements, to bring Hindus and Muslims together, but rather to revive Hinduism.
In this aim it succeeded to a large extent — not only did it halt the spread of Islam in Bengal, but some Muslims even converted to Vaishnavism. Among the common and uneducated Muslims of central and northern Bengal, Hindu customs began to mix with Islamic practices.”
(ibid., p. 493)
Sheikh Ikram further wrote:
“The Vaishnava Movement was not only defensive but also aggressive. It not only prevented Hindus from becoming Muslims but also spread Vaishnavism among Muslims, and achieved considerable success.
Chaitanya himself converted some Muslims. One of his close followers, Haridas, was originally a Muslim from a family of judges. Similarly, Bijli Khan, an Afghan warrior, became a Vaishnava under his influence. Another leader, Shyamananda, preached widely among Muslims and succeeded.
He even used economic pressure, advising Raja Narayan Garh that Muslim labourers should not be given work unless they abandoned their faith. Among the lower castes, this campaign spread rapidly.
Besides fully converting Muslims to Vaishnavism, several branches of the movement arose whose aim was to attract Muslims. One such group, known as the Darveshi order, traced its origin to Sanatan. Another was the Baul sect — a wide-spread group of wandering monks believed to combine both Hindu and Muslim traditions.”
(ibid., p. 497)
Sheikh Ikram added:
“The Vaishnava Movement also influenced Bengali Muslim literature. This energetic movement produced a kind of Renaissance among Bengali Hindus, who began to show new energy in every field of life.
The emotional devotional poetry (Krishna Bhakti) became very popular and affected Muslims in two ways. First, it gave Bengali language and literature a new tone that influenced Muslim writers who used it. Second, the devotional poems became so popular that even Muslims who were not Vaishnavas began composing poems on such themes.
Eventually, in the spiritual gatherings (Sama) of Sufi saints, Vishnu songs were sung alongside Islamic hymns, and people experienced deep spiritual emotion.
An interesting book of that time, Masā’il-ush-Shuyūkh, was written by Shah Qutb-ud-Din Haqqani, a disciple of Hazrat Noor Qutb Alam, towards the end of the 9th Hijri century.
In it, a saying is attributed to Hazrat Noor Qutb Alam: when someone objected that songs mentioning names like Krishna and Radha were being sung in his gatherings, he replied — ‘Even in the Holy Qur’an, the names of Pharaoh and Nimrod are mentioned.’
Sheikh Ikram concluded that this story was likely invented to provide justification for singing Vishnu songs (Bishn-Pad) in Sufi gatherings, but it also shows that such songs were indeed being sung at that time.”
(ibid., pp. 497–498)
Conclusion
Through these observations, Sheikh Muhammad Ikram highlighted that Indian society under the Mughals was complex yet culturally interconnected. Akbar’s Sulh-i-Kul promoted administrative justice and coexistence; meanwhile, intellectual and religious exchanges between Hindus and Muslims enriched both civilisations — even when some revivalist movements, such as the Chaitanya Movement, created tension or transformation within the religious landscape.
The essence of this history is mutual respect, dialogue, and cultural sharing, values that remain vital even today.
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Dr. Zafar Darik Qasmi is an author and a New Age Islam Regular Columnist.
URL: https://www.newageislam.com/books-documents/sheikh-ikram-religious-harmony-mughal-india/d/137458
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