Living Faith: Madrasa Education in Kashmir

By Mushtaq Ul Haq Ahmad Sikander, New Age Islam

21 July 2023

Kashmir was a Hindu majority region but the tyranny of Hindu  kings and rigidity of Hindu elite Brahmans coupled with their hegemony  had made the common masses averse to Hinduism and they accepted  Buddhism for solace and equal rights, but after sometime Brahman elite  struck back and Buddhism lost its foothold in Kashmir. Islam in Kashmir  did not come in the form of conquests or invasions by Muslim rulers but it  spread through the peaceful spiritual preaching of the Sufis. Eminent  historian Prem Nath Bazaz says “Politics had dehumanized the Kashmiris,  Islam made them men again. Just as the Muslim rule was established in  Kashmir without much bloodshed, so was Islam spread throughout the  length and breadth of the valley by peaceful preaching and lucid  persuasions of Mir Sayyid Ali and hundreds of the Sayyid missionaries  who came from Hamadan and other parts of Persia.”1

The earliest known Sufi in Kashmir was the Turkistani Suharwardi  Hazrat Sayyed Shrafuddin Abdur Rahman known as Bulbul Shah, who  travelled extensively in West and Central Asia before finally arriving in  Kashmir in CE 1295; in the reign of the Hindu king Raja Suha Dev. It is  believed that he stayed in Kashmir only for a short while on his maiden  trip, but later he came back in CE 1324 in the reign of the Buddhist ruler  Rinchen Shah, whom he converted to Islam,2 and who laid the foundation  of the Muslim rule in Kashmir which then continued for centuries. Bulbul  Shah succeeded in making few converts to Islam through peaceful  preaching, but with the death (alleged murder) of Rinchen the valley  retrograded back to Hindu rule. 

The next Sufi who preached in Kashmir was the Iranian Kubrawi  Hazrat Mir Sayyid Ali Hamdani (b. CE 1313/14) who converted many  Kashmiris to Islam along with his seven hundred disciples and  acquaintance Sayyids (Sadaat) who preached through every nook and corner of the Valley. He brought social, economic and political revolution  along with the religious one. Islam eased the rigid caste boundaries which  were upheld by Hinduism, thus hundreds of poor peasants entered the fold  of Islam. He and his Sadaat brought many new arts and crafts to Kashmir  which ushered an economic revolution among the poor masses and made  them financially strong.3 He also penned down Zakhirat ul Maluk, a  treatise for rulers on Statecraft though Muslim rulers of Kashmir neglected  it, but as a great scholar and prolific writer he penned numerous Sufi  treatises in Persian and Arabic. He was aware of the conditions prevalent  in Kashmir, despite being strict in matters of Shariah he introduced the  collective loud chanting of litanies in praise of Allah and the Holy Prophet  (SAW) after the Dawn Fajr prayer, the Aurad-i Fathiyya, a booklet he  compiled resembling the mantras which Hindus chanted in the temples. It  is still followed in many mosques and has now grown as an indigenous  practice which is unknown beyond the Kashmir. 

However as a Sufi, most of the teachings of Syed Ali Hamdani  particularly as espoused in his political treatise, Zakhirat ul Maluk, were  abhorred by the newly converted Muslim rulers. According to Hamdani,  the Non Muslims had to pay Jizya, remain subservient and not allowed to  build any new temples. So it was unacceptable to the king as political  pragmatism demanded that the faith of his majority subjects be respected.  These strict and rigid conditions on Non Muslims as espoused by Mir  Syed Ali Hamadani have drawn flak and severe criticism from various  quarters too. S.A.A Rizvi writes, about these conditions on Non Muslims  as, “In emphasizing such a covenant, Syed Ali was acting as an ‘Alim and  not as a Sufi. Sultan Qutub-ud-Din adopted Persian dress and divorced one  of his wives whom he had illegally married earlier.4 Also A. Q. Rafiqi in  his book, Sufism in Kashmir, takes a similar stance and describes Syed Ali  Hamadani’s mission in Kashmir as a failure because Sultan Qutub-ud-Din  did not subscribe to his political ideology of imposing severe and rigid  code of conduct of the Sh’afi law upon his Non Muslim subjects. Also  another writer describes the relations between Sultan Qutub-ud-Din and  Syed Ali Hamadani as not cordial. “There was a conflict between them,

arising from their different attitudes towards Non Muslims. Thus it made it  impossible for him to be reconciled with the policies of Sultan Qutub-ud Din. Dissatisfied with the Sultan’s response to the teachings, Syed Ali  Hamadani decided to leave Kashmir.”5 Some meticulous researches rebut  these views about the personality of Mir Syed Ali Hamdani.6 So Mir Syed  Hamdani did not have time and opportunity to establish any full fledged  Madaris in Kashmir. 

Here it may be noted that recent research shows Muslim presence  in the Valley before the arrival of these Sufis. Legend is that the Prophet  (SAW) had dispatched two emissaries to the court of the seventh century  Kashmiri king, Venna Dutt, who is said to have been so impressed by their  exposition of Islam that he began “to lead a simple life and even  distributed one tenth of his agricultural produce amongst the poor and  needy as Ushr (an Islamic levy).”7 Despite the presence of Muslims in  Kashmir it remains a fact that only after the advent of Sufis did the Islam  spread on a mass scale and became a new creed of the people. The Sufis  did establish some hospices, Madaris and also the Muslim kings  established them where the new converts of Islam would be imparted  teachings of Islam, Qur’anic recitation and learning few verses. Some  scholars who had migrated to Kashmir, also established their Madaris and wrote Fatawa but most of the Fatawa or legal opinions were articulated  by the King in consultation with jurists. 

Sufism in Kashmir developed its own indigenous form which is  popularly known as Rishism8 whose greatest proponent was Shaikh Noor ud-Din Noorani (1356-1440) popularly known as Nund Rishi. Nund Rishi  made Kashmiri poetry as a genre to carry the message of Islam among his  fellow Kashmiris and his poetic compositions, Shrukhs are still accorded  as the finest pieces of literary gems in Kashmiri language and are granted  the status of Koshur Qur’an or Kashmiri commentary on Holy Qur’an. The  life style of these Muslim Rishis drew heavily upon pre-Islamic traditions.  They spend long periods in forests and caves practicing stern vigorous  austerities for spiritual upliftment, though Noorani later came to believe that renouncing the world was cowardice and escapism from the reality  and brutal facts of life. A true, Rishi he stressed must actively intervene in  the day to day affairs, and take side of the poor, oppressed and wretched  ones of the earth. He crusaded against the oppression by elites, casteist  Brahmans and the ‘Ulama attached to the royal court, following his  criticism and being vocal as a champion of the rights of the poor thousands  entered the fold of Islam. The Mughal Emperor Jehangir in his  autobiography Tuzk i Jehangiri says about these Rishis that “Though they  have no religious knowledge or learning of any sort, yet they possess  simplicity and are without pretence. They abuse no one; they restrain the  tongue of desire and the foot of seeking. They eat no flesh, they have no  wives and always plant fruit bearing trees in fields so that men may benefit  by them; themselves desiring no advantage” 

The valley of Kashmir with the inception of Islam did undergo  drastic changes at all levels and strata of society. Islam in Kashmir was not  a result of some brutal and bloody conquest but by the efforts and toil of  Sufi Saints. It is due to the abundance of these Sufis and Rishis at every  nook and corner of the Kashmir that valley came to be known as Pir Vare  (abode of saints). These Sufis had certain specific characteristics which set  them apart from the mainstream ‘Ulema and literalists, and these  principles guided their individual and collective lives. 

These Rishis always stood for Communal harmony, love for all  humanity and Social Justice. Thus said Noor-ud-Din Noorani about  Communal Harmony 

Children of the same parents,

When will Hindus and Muslims cut down the tree of dualism? 

When will God be pleased with them and grant them his Grace?  We all came into this world as brethren 

One lives in a palace, another in a hut 

Still as brothers we came here all,

But now we are strangers and foes to each other 

O God! When will this ever cease? 

He further says 

We belong to same parents,

Then why this difference? 

Let Hindus and Muslims worship God alone.

We came into this world like partners.

We should have shared our joys and sorrows together.

Noor-ud-Din was preceded by Lalla Aarifah or Lalleshwari (Lal  Ded or Lal Mouj) the former used by Muslims and latter by Hindus to  describe her, though she did not convert to Islam but was deeply  influenced by its fundamentals and tenants espousing humanity, fraternity,  equality and communal harmony. Her verses known as vaakh in Kashmiri  are still part and parcel of the local vocabulary and folklore. She castigates  the Brahman greed for animal sacrifices as, 

It covers your shame,

Saves you from cold,

It’s food and drink,

Mere water and grass,

Who counseled you, O Brahman,

To slaughter a living sheep as a sacrifice,

Unto a lifeless stone.9

She revolted against the existing monopoly of knowledge and  learning by Brahmans who took pride in describing themselves as learned, 

The thoughtless read the Holy Books,

As parrots, in their cage, recite Ram Ram 

Their reading is like churning water,

Fruitless effort, ridiculous conceit.10

She described the various rituals and practices as obscure and  useless and preached love for all humanity. 

Siva abides in all that is everywhere 

Then do not discriminate between a Hindu and a Musalman 

If thou art wise, know thyself 

That is the true knowledge of the Lord.11

Noor-ud-Din paid Lalla rich tributes in these famous verses, 

That Lalla of Padmanpore 

Who sleeped down her throat, the Divine nectar 

Was an avtar of ours 

O God, grant me the same spiritual power.

The Rishi inspiration and culture owes its popularity to various  factors, among them the non proselytizing missionary activities of Rishis,  little concern towards the establishment of religious madaaris and  remaining aloof from the power centers and ruling clique were the  characteristics that won the hearts of millions of Kashmiris. The message  of Rishis passed through oral medium from generation to generation and  few established hospices, but institutionalized madaaris were not a part of  the Rishi culture. This Sufi and Rishi culture along with the conversion of  Kings and establishment of Muslim rule later resulted in the mass  conversion of the Kashmiris to Islam. 

The decades passed and the monarchs changed but the common  people continued to live in harmony and peace only to be disturbed time  and again by skirmishes, internecine wars and foreign invasions. Most of  these disturbances were of temporary nature, but during the rule of Chak  dynasty, the persecution of majority of Sunnis at the hands of Shia  minority led Chak rulers sow the seeds of discord that paved way for the  invasion by Mughals in 1585 led by Akbar who was waiting for an  opportunity to annex Kashmir to his Kingdom. Later, he sent the last  independent ruler of Kashmir, Yusuf Shah Chak in exile to Bihar where he  died a sad unsung death. 

With the decline of the Mughal rule, Afghans, Sikhs and Dogras  ruled Kashmir. They committed numerous atrocities against Kashmiris.  During Mughal and Afghan rule some madaaris were established, few  existing ones given grants and others encouraged. But the Sikh and Dogra  period witnessed antagonism towards these institutions, some even fell  into dismay and various declined. Education was confined to a specific  class of people who had the caste or material privilege. Education under  Dogras was mostly imparted on traditional pattern through tsatahals or  traditional schools. It meant gurukul for Pandits where Sanskrit learning  was imparted and Qur’anic education for muslims in madaaris. The  madaaris also trained students in Persian language. Also there was a huge  network of makaatib associated with each big mosque, where children

were taught to read Qur’anic Arabic but without understanding it. The  working hours were mostly at dawn or dusk.12 Persian language was the  gateway to administrative posts, but due to the Hindu nature of the Dogra  regime, most administrative posts of the state bureaucracy were  monopolized by handful Pandit families. 

Even obstacles were insurmountable for establishment of religious  madaaris in the nineteen century. Allama Anwar Shah Kashmiri, who was  educated at Deoband and struggled for three years to establish a madrasa at his birth burg in Lolab to enlighten his people about the correct tenets of  Islam at last gave up his efforts and settled down permanently in  Deoband.13 Today, he is considered one of the stalwarts of Deobandi  school of thought in whole South Asia. 

The Pandit Hindu minority of the Valley was spared from the  persecution and oppression so were the upper caste muslim Syeds, Pirs  and Khojas.14 Pandits, Syeds, Pirs and Khojas were exempted from the  begaar15 that every Kashmiri Muslim was eligible for. The oppressive and  discriminatory nature of Dogra regime towards Muslim subjects was  documented by various visitors and travelers. But these Muslim Syed and  Pirs did continue a tradition of Qur’an teaching and learning in their  individual capacity. They taught Qur’anic recitation in mosques and even  their women taught Qur’an in their homes. They were known as Oatanjis/  Ustanjis (Female Qur’an teachers). The local boys and girls went to their  homes for learning the recitation and they paid them in cash or kind for  learning the book of Allah. This was also an important activity and role  that was confined to Syeds and Pirs. 

Madrasa Education in Kashmir after Indian Independence

With the end of Dogra era, the autocratic rule was over, but the  family and personality oriented politics continued.16 In this new scenario,  the old loyal class of Dogra regime was disempowered. The land to tiller  act got the Jagirdari system abolished. In most cases the landlords were  paid nominal or no compensation. This Act made Sheikh Abdullah darling  of the masses. This one step disempowered some Khoja Muslims too.

They bore the double brunt because unlike Syeds and Pirs most of them  were involved with business and maintaining huge chunks of lands. They  had distaste for education because they were not interested in jobs as it did  not offer them lucrative material gains. Syeds and Pirs being poor and  dependent on Khojas for their survival when confronted with the  overhauled system were the first ones to avail the fruits of the new system.  They had been educationally aware, as it was the only criteria that offered  them an elated social status. They would offer their services to Khojas and  survive by conducting the religious rituals whether teaching Qur’an or  leading prayers. The Khojas continued with the Dogra norm of not  availing education in the first two decades in post accession years. Syeds  and Pirs now had to avail the state patronage in the form of government  jobs that were previously monopolized by the Pandits. So being aware of  the prospects of education and continuing with their previous normal  routine, Syeds and Pirs were the first among Kashmiri Muslims to avail  the educational opportunities. Unlike the Khojas, they let their women to  be enrolled in schools too and allowed them to go for jobs too.17 

The distribution of land and educational opportunities over the next  few decades gave rise to the middle class in Kashmir. The development of  middle class had diverse impact and ramifications on the Kashmiri society.  Maharaja Hari Singh in late 1930s had started compulsory but coercive  schooling (Jabari schools). The parents were compelled to enroll their  children in government schools of their locality. This trend was continued  by the Sheikh Abdullah’s government and a generation was rendered  literate.18 The state continued its efforts to establish more schools, colleges  and universities.19 These efforts continued with the establishment of  professional colleges like Medical College and Regional Engineering  College in Kashmir. But the events of 1953 that led to the deposition and  incarceration of Sheikh Abdullah disrupted the academic calendar as  strikes and hartals were observed continuously in the next few decades.20

On the otherhand, the religious and revivalist movements also  established a network of educational institutes in Kashmir. Jamiat e Ahle

Hadith, Jamaat e Islami, Anjuman Tablighul Islam, All Jammu & Kashmir  Shariye Shuiyaan established their educational institutions.21 These  educational institutions were offering mixed curriculum of  government/secular and private/religious education to the children. They  also opened their doors to the girls. These educational institutions  affiliated with these religious organizations certainly were a blend of  madrasa and school system, although they were offering some religious  education they were not madaaris. These religious and revivalist  movements established new madaaris and some of them are affiliated with  government institutions of higher learning and they grant dual degrees.22

The threat to be rendered irrelevant and left behind had prompted  certain initiatives aimed at education of Muslims in Kashmir. Earlier too  the educational activities of Christian schools coupled with Dogra rulers’  prejudice against Muslim masses made religious scholars particularly of  Mirwaiz family initiate a movement for social and religious reform. They  intended to keep themselves relevant among the masses and fueled by the  Islamic spirit of education and knowledge, Mirwaiz Rasul Shah  established Anjuman e Nusratul Islam in 1889. Rasul Shah perceived  Kashmiri Muslims to be ignorant and backward because of their  lackadaisical attitude towards modern and religious education. To  overcome these impediments he established a primary school namely  Islamia school in 1899 under the aegis of Anjuman. This school opened  new vistas of education for the masses. They were not reluctant to enroll  their children in this school because Mirwaiz enjoyed the religious  sanctity. Hence faith and morals of children were safe in Islamia school as  compared to the missionary schools run by Christians. Mirwaiz did not  openly oppose the missionary or government schools but set up an  alternative model school and given his following particularly in the  Srinagar city, the Anjuman schools were successful in educating the  Kashmiri Muslims. 

The education of many Muslims in different madaaris of India  who were to play a pivotal role in education and social reform also perpetuated mushrooming of madaaris in Kashmir. Mirwaiz23 Yusuf Shah  studied at Darul uloom Deoband. After completing his studies, he played  an important role as the chief cleric of Jamia masjid, Srinagar. His role  was instrumental in the political awakening of Kashmiris from 1920s till  partition. Most of the founders of Islamic revivalist movement Jamaat e  Islami (JeI) chapter in J&K (JeIK) were also trained in different madaaris and colleges outside the Kashmir valley.24 If these young men through  their education in undivided India had not been exposed to the new ideas  and values of liberty, freedom and democracy then the struggle against the  Dogra regime would have been delayed by few decades. The political,  social and religious reform too would have taken a backseat if these young  men who studied in India had not returned back to play an important role  in their respective domains and fields. 

JeIK was headed by the class of Pirs during its initial decades after  it was founded in 1943.25 In the post accession decades it played an  important role in the educational and socio-political scenario of Kashmir.  It rebelled against the traditional Sufi oriented clergy who were helping  maintain the status quo. JeIK was confronted by the traditional clergy  associated with the shrines and mosques. For JeIK leaders, Islam is a  holistic system that espoused and encouraged its faithful adherents to take  charge of the socio-political and educational leadership roles in the  society. They were dissatisfied with the status quoist education and  religious practices embedded in ritualistic Islam. For this revolutionary  role of education and Islam had to be reinterpreted anew. 

Similarly a number of Kashmiri youth went to Saudi Arabia and  Iran in 1980s and after returning established a number of madaaris to  propagate their interpretation of Islam. These madaaris are still functional  in different parts of Kashmir and hundreds of students are imparted  religious education in these institutions. Even now every year hundreds of  Kashmiri students enrol in different madaaris in India and abroad for  gaining religious knowledge.

The madaaris in Kashmir have witnessed a perpetual growth. Now  in every area of Kashmir, a madrasa is present. They are affiliated with  different madaaris of India, schools of thought and sects. Each madrasa has a curriculum that follows the Dars e Nizami, with few additions,  deletions and deviations here and there. The course books are somewhat  similar, except that the Qur’anic exegesis prescribed is the one written by  some scholar of their sect. Similar is the case with jurisprudence, they  follow a single school of thought, except for the Salafis and Ahle Hadith  who may claim to follow no jurist or school of thought. But even in Salafi  madaaris, the textbooks prescribed for jurisprudence are written by the  Salafi scholars, in most cases those based in Saudi Arabia or Gulf.  Similarly in JeIK affiliated madaaris, the basic textbooks and opinions of  Mawlana Mawdudi and other JeI affiliated scholars are part of the  curriculum. 

In most madaaris affiliated to Deobandi, Barelwi and Salafi  schools of thought, the students are trained in debating skill (Manazira  Baazi). The aim of this exercise is to prepare the students with polemics so  that they can defeat their opponent and declare the triumph of their school  of thought. So the emphasis in most madaaris is to declare the other  school of thought as deviated and straying from the path of Islam. The  libraries of most of these madaaris are filled with tomes and volumes that  are written by their protagonists rebutting the other sects. The curriculum,  covert and overt, both, has components that have sectarian tinge among  them. Later when these madrasa students graduate they opt for the same  polemical approach and are filled with false pride that makes them believe  that only their interpretation is infallible and gospel truth. So as is the case  in South Asia and other countries where these madaaris have spread their  networks, sectarianism is on rise. The case is no different in Kashmir. The  sectarianism rules roost and to add insult to injury social media is being  used to spread it. Earlier these sectarian debates were confined to mosques  and books but the advent of social media has granted a new boon of life to  these sectarian mullahs.

These sectarian mullahs do not allow change in the madrasa structure and curriculum. I found computers rarely in madaaris, even if  there are few, they are for maintaining records and out of bounds for the  students to operate. The use of ICT in classes is out of question. The  pedagogy too is very traditional, where rote memorization is the ultimate  goal. The prevalence of smart phones is a fact that has been accepted;  otherwise for students it is abhorred. The development of critical thinking  and questioning the teacher is looked down upon. The teacher still enjoys  the reverence of a great saint or Pir whose sayings are sacred and beyond  question. The manifestation of this reverence can be witnessed in the form  of hagiographies that are written in huge numbers by the madrasa trained  scholars. Unless the questioning spirit is not a part of madrasa curriculum  things will not move in a positive direction. Pedagogy, curriculum and  education have moved beyond them. The centre of education now is the  student not teacher, textbooks and pedagogy. But it will take madaaris decades to learn about this simple fact and adopt child centric approach. 

Gender and Madrasa

The curriculum of girl madaaris though based on Dars e  Nizamiyyah but certainly the emphasis of girl madaaris is to prepare girls  to become examples of obedient wives and good mothers besides carrying  out the message of Islam.26 The syllabus of girls’ madrasa is different  because women are supposed to have different capabilities thus they need  differential treatment. Further only few girls are supposed to go for higher  education or Ifta (Juristic knowledge) that will allow them to issue  Fataawa.27 Women are supposed to stay at home, raise a family and help  the man in looking after his children. The whole corpus of religious  literature produced about women just deals with their duties with few  focusing on their rights. Most of the literature produced about women just  deals about their responsibilities with little focus on their rights. Most of  the literature is advisory in nature that is heavily influenced by social  context and patriarchy.28

Most of the literature written on women by ‘Ulama is advisory in  nature29 that intends to make them fit certain gender roles. South Asia and  India particularly being a patriarchal society, women are supposed to  uphold certain roles. Islam is used to justify and legitimize these gender  roles, misogyny and patriarchy. The Muslim women are quite behind men  in every aspect including socio-economic and political one.30 The rights  that Islam has bestowed on women including the property rights, Mehr  (dower money), right to education and right to marry are violated with  impunity. Most mosques and madaaris have no space for women. They  continue to remain illiterate, existing in their specific gender roles as home  makers and upbringing children. The madrasa teaches the same classical  interpretation of Islam that was rooted in an agricultural society and is  deeply patriarchal. The new discourse about gender, Just Islam, which  engages with a new gender neutral and positive interpretation of Islam is  quite alien to madaaris.31 With the changing times, there certainly is  urgency of Ijtihaad32 to deal with the context specific questions, Gender  and Women rights being the most important one. The girl madaaris in  Kashmir are no different than their counterparts in India. However their  trajectory is different as Islam in Kashmir and Islam in India followed  different patterns, routes and lived realities. 

The mass conversion of people to Islam in Kashmir coincided with  the foundation of Muslim rule in Kashmir,33 but the status of women did  not improve considerably, because Islam did not impact social life as such  and the economic relationships between the kingdom and masses also  maintained a status quo, though a few women did find their way to the  echelons of power like the Queen Habba Khatoon, who was the Queen of  Kashmir’s last independent King Yusuf Shah Chak. But women like her  were an exception than rule as the status of women in Kashmir remained  almost the same if not degraded as before the advent of Islam. However,  the Rishi syncretic culture allowed women to be a part of learning and  spreading the teachings of Rishism, as many women were disciples of  Rishi masters.

Islam neither contributed nor acted as a retribution for this progress  and development of women. In case of education, the women belonging to  the elite upper castes were the first to avail education and secure various  lucrative administrative and educational jobs. Despite the fact that  immediately after 1947 it was still considered taboo to send girls to school,  but this taboo seems more circumstantial than cultural or religious because  the schools were located at long distance from homes, hence parents  preferred not to send their children. Also economic conditions were  responsible for this apathy.34 Further women madaaris were unknown to  the Kashmiri Muslims. Women played no role when it came to religious  articulation, discourses or jurisprudence. Only few women were associated  with teaching Qur’an that too as a role passed from generation to  generation in Syed and Pir castes. Similar was the case with mainstream  education. 

The harbingers of education in Kashmir were the English  missionaries who established various schools in Kashmir. The credit for  establishing a girl school also goes to these missionaries particularly to the  efforts of Miss Muriel P Mallionson.35 The Mirwaiz family of Srinagar  also helped in the spread of education among the Muslim masses and one  Mirwaiz Rasul Shah better known as Sir Syed of Kashmir established  schools where girls were enrolled too. 

With the advent of education among the elite women, their  customs and dress patterns also depicted a remarkable change. Burqa and  Purdah were discarded36 by them, as this pattern of dress and seclusion of  women was confined among the upper castes only and they comprised of  the Syeds (those who claimed to be descendants of Holy Prophet  Muhammad (SAW) and Khojas (those who belonged to upper caste and were  rich too). The common women never practiced or adhered to the strict  dress code of Burqa or Purdah though modest dress was always a part of  Kashmiri culture. Kashmir being an agricultural society; a majority of  women work in the fields hence cannot veil themselves strictly in long  cloaks, jilbabs or abayas.

The upper caste women practiced Burqa or Purdah system more  due to class, social and customary reasons than for religious reasons of  Islamic piety. Thus with the advent of education and economic  independence these upper caste women discarded the Burqa and Purdah only to be rescued and taken up by the lower caste women much out of the  reasons for upward social mobility than for adherence to religious spirit. 

In the wake of secular education, the religious education of women  in most cases remained confined to learning to read Holy Qur’an without  understanding it and performance of certain rituals. Islam only had a  ritualistic and strictly traditional religious role in the lives of women who  in majority of cases remained unaware about their rights and duties as  enshrined and bestowed on them by Islam. The situation continued like  this till early 1990s when the armed insurgency initiated in the valley. 

Kashmir could not remain oblivious to the influence and impact of  various Islamic Revivalist Movements that initiated in various parts of the  Muslim world particularly in the Indian subcontinent. Among them three  are worth mentioning: Jamaat e Islami (JeI), Tablighi Jamaat (TJ) (these  two were founded in India) and Ahl e Hadith movement. All these three  movements had only a slight influence on the lives of Kashmiri women  though their influence was still remarkable if contrasted with the  misogynist Deobandi and Barelvi schools of thought, where women are  supposed to play no socially engaged or public roles. 

Jamaat e Islami, though founded in Kashmir in year 1945 but after  the birth of present day Kashmir conflict in 1947, JEI Kashmir (JeIK)  chalked out its own course suitable to the political environment and local  milieu. It remained aloof from both JeI India and Pakistan and had its own  indigenous character though Mawlana Abul Ala Mawdudi’s writings  continued to be the fountainhead of its ideology. JeI Kashmir was  successful in impressing and influencing thousands of Kashmiri educated  youth through its teachings and chain of schools that were banned in the  wake of Emergency in India (1975-1977). It has a women’s wing, but not  much is known about it, though its members regularly meet for various religious programmes through a vibrant network of study circles. Most of  the women members come from those families whose male members are  associated with the JeI. But the acquaintance of one’s kith and kin with JeI  does not guarantee one’s induction in JeI. JeI still upholds the credentials  of a strict moral and religious conduct for its cadres while inducting new  ones and granting them membership. 

But JeI women members and cadres remain in oblivion from the  public eye and the teachings of Mawlana Mawdudi are conservative,  cultural and traditional when it comes to role of women in public life. Its  women members even if deeply religious don’t play any big positive role  in changing or uplifting the status of Muslim women in Kashmir. Their  primary focus is to make Islamic political system prevail over other  systems, and they deem that if they are successful in this particular goal  then it will lead to the remedy of all other social, political and economic  evils and injustices, including the problems confronting women. 

Tablighi Jamaat (TJ) operates through the network of mosques and  rarely there is an exclusive women’s Jamaat. Once in a blue moon a  women Jamaat accompanies men’s Jamaat that mostly comprises wives of  the Tablighi cadres, who would accompany them on various religious  tours for particular number of days, during which the Tablighi cadres will  put a stay in the mosques and try to reach out to other Muslims located  near the mosques and convince them of coming to Masjids regularly and  essence of joining the TJ. 

The women associated with TJ are a miniscule minority who are  very religious and their religion is confined to personal piety and reaching  out to others to purify them from the instincts of baser self. They don’t  have a mandate for a larger public role and they cannot play a huge role in  social reforms and in fighting violence committed against women. Also  the women in TJ are supposed to remain invisible and their public roles  are discouraged, guarded and vetoed by men. The primary focus of TJ is to  make Muslims adhere to the ritualistic Islam and spread the message of  Islam through their network.

The Ahle Hadith movement started initially as a movement to  purify Islam from the yoke of sectarianism and religious divisions within  the Muslim societies but in the process of this reformation it reduced itself  to a sect too. They believe and adhere to a puritanical, scriptural and  literalist interpretations of Islam, in which women have a very marginal  role to play. The only contribution of Ahle Hadith sect is that they opened  the closed doors of mosques on women and women had access to one of  the religious rights, that other sects had denied them. It is a feature of  every Ahle Hadith mosque that they have separate facility for women to  offer prayers. But except that they also played no bigger role in the  upliftment of women. Their primary focus is on purifying Hindu  influenced Sufi practices prevalent in Kashmir, like reverence of shrines  and grave worship. For them spreading Tawhid (oneness of God) is much  more important than improving status of women. 

Women constitute half of the population of any society. In  conservative and patriarchal societies women are discriminated against in  every field including politics, religion and education. In South Asian  countries women are facing numerous problems including domestic  violence, foeticide, wage disparity and illiteracy. Muslim women  particularly in the Kashmir valley are among the marginalized sections of  society. Muslim women are educationally backward and historically they  have been deprived the right to interpret religion. The lack of religious  authority among women is a result of various reasons. Muslim women are  mostly ignorant about religious scriptures because they are educationally  backward as there is a dearth of institutions that impart religious education  to women. 

One such glaring example is “Jamiat-ul-Banat” that was founded  by JeIK. It is meant only to cater the educational needs of womenfolk and  is a pioneer in this field among the other Valley’s educational institutions  which banish the womenfolk from acquiring religious and worldly  education. The Jamia is situated in the Umer Colony B of the Lal Bazaar  area away from the hustle and bustle of city life. The chief administrator of

the Jamia, informed me that the institution was established in July 1999 by  a Trust known as “Taleem-e-Niswaan Trust”. The purpose behind the trust  was to quench the thirst of religious knowledge of young girls. The  admission to this institute is solely done on the basis of merit in a written  test conducted by the faculty. A girl must have completed her  matriculation after which she is eligible for the test. This is unlike the  madaaris where no pre requisite educational qualifications are needed.  Those students who pass the test with distinction are then made to pay the  admission fee of rupees 11,000 for six years which are to be spent for their  bed, cupboard, utensils, books and other essentials during their stay at the  Jamia hostel. Thereafter they have to pay Rupees 1500 monthly as tuition,  mess and hostel charges. A ten percent quota for orphan girls is also  reserved under which all the burden of their educational expenses is borne  by the institution. 

Course 

The six (6) year course is divided into three phases:- 

A) Pre-Aalimah: It is of one year duration in which the student becomes  acquainted with the Arabic language and grammar, so that she can  understand, write and be fluent in the language which is essential to  understand Islam from its primary sources. 

B) Aalimiat: After the completion of Pre-Aalimah course, the students  become eligible for the Aalimiat course, which is of two years duration, in  which Qur’an, Ahadith, Fiqh and Muslim history are taught besides that  English, Urdu and Islamic Studies subjects from the prescribed books by  J&K Board Of School Education are also studied. At the completion of  this course a course certificate is given to the students. Then they enter the  final phase. 

C) Faziliat: It lasts for three years, besides the religious subjects, books  prescribed by Kashmir University (KU) for English, Urdu and Islamic  Studies are also opted. The exam to this course is conducted by the KU  itself which is equivalent to three years of bachelor degree from any other college. Thus this recognition of the Faziliat makes it possible for them on  the completion of the course (Faziliat) to be eligible for Post-Graduation  and higher studies in various branches of Humanities from KU. 

Besides education, all students are made familiar with the basics of  computer sciences. To cater this need the institute has a well developed  computer lab. There is also a vocational training center in which students  are taught the art of tailoring. In addition to it, Home Science department  renovates every student into a good chef. The executive body of the Jamia  wholly comprises of Males, and the non-teaching staff consists of forty  odd souls. The teaching staff of seventeen comprises of all females except  four retired male ones. The hostel is also managed by women. 

The administrator reminded me that only education in a narrow  sense is not the sole purpose of this institution, but real character building  and infusing spirit of piety among the womenfolk because our slogan is  “The education of male is of a solitary soul whereas education of a female  is education of the whole family”. He then continues on repeating different  sayings of Prophet (SAW) in which he emphasized on the education of  womenfolk. “Our students are working independently within Islamic  boundaries in various educational institutions, as teachers, as preachers  and also as students earning degrees in various fields” responds the  administrator to my question as to what do the students opt after  completion of the course from the institution. He informs me that the  institute is in constant contact with its ex-students, they have been given  “Eleven Point Programme” to work towards building a better and evil free  society and we meet after every six months to know about their progress  and gain from their experience in the field. 

The administrator takes me on a roam in the varsity of Jamia,  where I have a privilege to witness a well built up hostel, well furnished  classrooms, well equipped library, a spacious dining hall and a well  decorated but small auditorium where regularly debates, meetings and  seminars are held. Besides this a medical unit is also installed equipped  with services of veteran medical practitioner who caters to the need of the sick students. A meeting room is also present where parents and  “Mahram” acquaintances of students can meet them accordingly with  instructions. Banat has also got its own vehicle for student facilities. 

Having not been satisfied with official version only, I requested the  administrator that I wished to interact with some students, he agreed and  within minutes some Hijab adorned girls came and started answering my  questions befittingly, “We came here because the education we receive  here makes us to excel in this world as well as hereafter” answers one  responding to my question “Why did they opt for Banat while other  institutions were quite attractive too?”At this instance I shot another  flaring question at them “Can you dare to compete with students of other  institutions who are a lot more exposed to the society than you?”At this  one of the students answers me back fluently in English that we have also  got good exposure but within Islamic boundaries and are well versed to  debate with common students of other institutions in oratory, writing skills  and essay competitions.”What are you going to do once your studies are  complete?” “We will start to work for Positivistic Islamic changes among  womenfolk who are ignorant about Islam and study further”, they respond  in unity. 

They convince me that the conditions in the Jamia are ideal for  their sound Physical, Moral and Intellectual development, also the Fiqh  which is taught is non-sectarian which doesn’t compartmentalize the  students in different sects each striving to prove his interpretation of Islam  as the Solitary Truth thus shattering the unity of Ummah beyond repair. 

Besides this another girls’ madrasa is run by Mubeena Ramzan  known as Mahdutul Muslimaat Education Trust. Unlike Jamiatul Banaat  this institution is imparting religious education to girls run and managed  by women solely. But its degree is not recognized by Kashmir University  as it is an independent educational institution. I met and interacted with  Mubeena, the dynamic founder and chief executive of the Trust, at their  Srinagar campus. She related the journey since the establishment of the  institution to its present evolution in chronological order with brevity. The institution was established in 2001 at Sopore and in 2008 the institution  started operating from Parraypora, Srinagar. It has scores of girls on its  rolls at both campuses who are studying in various levels of their religious  courses. Its syllabus is similar to other madaaris with no inclusion of  English language or social sciences. It is a purely religious institution.  When I questioned Mubeena about the role of these women religious  scholars once they graduate, she optimistically informed me that they do  establish study circles, preach in women congregations and try to be better  wives and mothers, as that is the basic role of a woman. I further  questioned her about the public role of these women as religious scholars  particularly articulating religious opinions, she answers quite partially.  Although she speaks at various functions but she is not quite vocal and  different in her opinions about various issues. Further she has no strong  opinions about the change and modernization of madaaris. The  empowerment of women that religious education should lead to is  unfortunately not found. Women in Kashmir still face numerous problems  particularly they are among the least educated sections of our society.  Religious education instead of empowering them has further reinforced  patriarchy, giving it a religious tinge, thus reinforcing their  disempowerment.37 In the Kashmiri patriarchal culture where a woman is  treated as a second class inferior citizen whose only purpose of life is to  satisfy the carnal desires of her husband, raise the children and look after  his household, she is being praised for her selfless household activities and  dedication towards her husband. Her salvation in the hereafter depends on  how happy her husband is with her services. Any disobedience is treated  as sin. She is doomed to raging fires of hell if her husband is unhappy with  her. The disobedience of her husband is equal to disobedience to creator.  The misogynist Hadith wrongly attributed to Holy Prophet Muhammad  (SAW) tried to reinforce this mindset. The patriarchal mindset wants to  demean the status of women by stating that “if prostration was allowed for  anyone other than Allah then it would have been allowed for a wife to  prostrate before her husband.” Also another misogynist Hadith states that,  “If a husband is angry with his wife, Allah doesn’t listen to her prayers.”

Also another Hadith that tries to reinforce the upper hand of husbands by  stating that, “If a husband doesn’t permit his wife to fast, she shouldn’t  keep the non obligatory fasts.” When the patriarchy and misogyny is  inculcated and camouflaged in religious terms then obedience and  submission becomes a religious duty that few women would dare to  oppose. Islam, Qur’an and Prophet Muhammad (SAW) gave revolutionary  rights to women that were snatched by Muslim men over centuries.  Madaaris instead of empowering Muslim women have further helped in  reinforcing patriarchy and misogyny. 

What Mars the Madrasa System in Kashmir

Religious education is meant to inculcate ideal values among the  students in order to prepare them to be contributing, productive and  progressive citizens of a nation. Education is the backbone of every  society. The more educated a society is more the chances of its being a  leader in the comity of nations. Kashmir after its accession with India has  progressed by leaps and bounds and education too has spread to all its  nooks and crannies, but it has resulted in bringing down the rates of  illiteracy rather than spread of education. The two terms literacy and  education are mostly confused with each other, but they have a huge  difference. Literacy is the ability of a person to read, write and speak a  certain language whereas education constitutes the overall development of  body, mind and soul. This holistic development of citizens continues to  evade most literate persons. Madaaris too are able to churn out religiously  literate people, but the real goals of education continue to evade them. 

The ‘productive’ crop of millions of literates that our madaaris produce is ill conceived, half baked and ill prepared amalgam of  ‘educated’ souls that alone constitutes the biggest flaw of our madrasa system. It is a complex problem that needs a multipronged strategy to  rectify the wrongs. The shortcomings in the madrasa system results in our  products being deformed, ill prepared and non concerned to baffle with the  challenges of higher values of life, like truth, justice, compassion,  empathy, mercy and productivity among the students for which they can stand up in their lives and struggle. Instead most of them retrograde  towards sectarianism and are easily tempted by superstitions and other  vices. 

In order to right the wrongs a complete overhauling of madrasa system alongwith the drastic evolutionary changes, are needed to be  implemented time and again in a systematic manner. The flaws, challenges  and shortcomings need to be corrected in a three pronged strategy at three  different levels if we want our madrasa system to be a positive  contributing cornerstone of the society. 

Administrative Rectification 

Every educational setup needs a hierarchal system that can  streamline the process of education through the web of institutions,  teachers and administrative clerical staff. The system of granting  recognition to the madaaris is shrouded in mystery. The basic criterion  that renders a madrasa eligible for recognition is not transparent. Is it just  that they need to have few students, boarding and lodging facility,  following certain textbooks and subscribing to a school of thought that  renders them recognition, eligibility and affiliation for running a madrasa?  Many more madaaris are running without affiliation to any big madaaris on personal whims of an individual or a group of individuals. Numerous  madaaris are being run in sub human conditions with no proper  classrooms and other facilities that make them non conducive for teaching.  But they continue to run for decades because there is no system of  inspection, thus they continue to function while civil society turns a blind  eye to their flaws. 

The teachers in these madaaris are paid meager amounts of money  as salaries and are hence exploited by the owners of these madaaris. No  labour laws are applicable in this case that can give respite to these  teachers. The condition is worst for female teachers as they are paid less  salary as compared to their male colleagues. This sheer exploitation  continues unabated and no civil society and scholars seem serious to put  an end to this discriminatory practice.

The recruitment system of the madaaris should be meeting highest  standards in order to choose the best candidates. But rarely there is an  advertisement for recruitment of faculty in madaaris advertised. The  recruitment is not held in transparent and accountable manner. Further to  add insult to injury, the promotion of teachers again is very rare. 

The next is the issue of infrastructure. Most of the madaaris lack  proper infrastructure and in many cases the funds are not available for the  infrastructure development and there is no accountability for the same.  Plus the washroom and pure drinking water facility is improper in many  madaaris. The food served in most madaaris is not a proper balanced diet. 

Teachers: Builders of Nation or Scavengers of a Dead Society  “A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops”  (Henry Adams) 

A Teacher should be the most progressive elite of a nation.  Teachers must be trend setters. The nation has bestowed a great task to a  teacher to prepare generations of leaders in every field. The progress,  vibrancy, productivity and moral health of a nation can be gauged from the  status that a nation accords to teachers. The status of madrasa teachers in  Kashmir is pathetic. 

There are many reasons for this apathy. The meager salary of  teachers in madaaris adds to their daily woes. During the survey, I didn’t  come across any single such madrasa that would provide its teachers more  than ten thousand rupees per month. Most teachers are paid in the range of  three to six thousand rupees per month. So whosoever is a teacher has a  hand to mouth existence, and cannot be expected to break the vicious  cycle of poverty. 

Most of the candidates selected as teachers have not adopted it as  the profession of first choice. They have just landed in the teaching out of  chance or sheer luck, thus the aptitude that teaching demands is missing.  Lack of aptitude renders them loveless for books and in these  circumstances how can they inculcate the same among the students? I have found few teachers studying books, except the prescribed text books that  have been revised long back. The teachers use a certain reference, dictate  the answers and the students cram them, sit in exams and pass the tests  with below average grades. 

The bookish knowledge is essential but beyond books they know  nothing because they love to spend time in futile debating rather than in  reading. The reading is abhorred and creativity is discouraged among  teachers. Even the madaaris seem unconcerned about developing and  harnessing the creativity of teachers. There are rarely any teachers  trainings organized by the madaaris. Any new idea is grossly opposed and  discouraged by the senior teachers and administrators who try to downplay  it by stating that they are new to the madrasa system and it has been going  on like the same since many decades. Any change in the status quo is not  welcome, that kills the enthusiasm of the freshly recruited teachers  desiring any change. The new aids of teaching learning methods and  pedagogical practices are in vague as the teachers themselves are not  aware of the same. 

The biggest problem with teachers is that they fail to impress the  students as role models. When they are de-motivated themselves how can  they inspire the students for higher goals in life? When a teacher does not  deliver well in madrasa how can he justify the claim of being a noble  professional? The teachers in madaaris have failed to inspire students and  become role models that would help in creating a better progressive future. 

In many madaaris due to few on roll students, teachers make  fictitious roll about students. This is essential as it helps in generating  funds for the madrasa. It is another problematic aspect of functioning of  madaaris. 

Conclusion 

Many ‘Ulama have talked and voiced concerns about the reforms  in madaaris but they were never successful in implementing these  revolutionary reforms or initiate and implement changes in the curriculum.

None of the reformist ‘Ulama was successful in establishing any madrasa that bridged the gap between the modern and traditional education. In a  way every new voice for change in madaaris has been neglected and  marginalized. Even Ashraf Ali Thanvi’s, Shibli Noamani’s, Abul Kalam  Azad’s and Maulana Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi’s efforts met but with no or  very limited success. In fact madaaris are defending the status quo on  various pretexts including the conspiracy mindset, state intervention and  nefarious designs of Zionist powers that are hell-bent to destroy the  citadels (madaaris) of Islam.38 So if the community has to progress, the  madaaris need to keep pace with time. Otherwise they would be left  redundant with time. The madaaris are relevant and would remain so in  the coming decades so their reform is essential, but since last one century  every attempt at reform has failed so, madaaris are not ready to accept the  change. A discourse, process and way had to be created or invented to add  value to the madaaris and render them relevant to our current times. 

An English language course that empowers its students to master  the universal language should be introduced in the madaaris that will  increase their scope of activities, employment opportunities and skills.  They can promptly visit different countries of the world and be adjusted in  various fields besides representing Islam. The real task of madaaris should  be to produce ‘Ulema who cater to the public role of Islam. They should  be well grounded in the traditional and modern knowledge systems, so that  they can offer solutions in the light of Islamic principles. “In a world that  is shaped and controlled by another civilization, the real task facing the  Muslim Ummah is the creation of an intellectual space which is a genuine  embodiment of the world view and culture of Islam. Without this  intellectual space, reformist ideas and programmes will bear no fruit.  Muslim civilization is in a dire need of genuine intellectuals; unless  Muslim societies cultivate the barren lands of today’s intellectual vacuum,  the Ummah’s marginalized existence will be institutionalized. The real  world offers us no choice but to start our homework immediately”.39

 “The duality of the education systems which has found currency  among Muslims after the establishment of the government (read colonial  British) that holds sway over the country should be done away with and  only one system should be adopted. It is for this reason that I have called  my educational scheme ‘the theory of unification of the educational  system’”40 The founder of Aligarh Movement that led to the establishment  of Aligarh Muslim University in 1920, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was aware  of the shortcomings of madrasa curriculum and its failure in addressing  the modern issues.41 Dr Obaidullah Fahd remarked that, “madaaris should  include change, overhaul their curriculum, add new subjects, have Hindu  scholars invited for guest lectures and be mobilized for introducing change  within”.42

The madaaris still have not opened their doors to the new subjects  because for them: 

“1. Western culture and Indian philosophy weaken Islam and  therefore no such subjects should be introduced 

2. If any modern subject is taught at all, it should be Islamised  first 

3. It is better to give Islamic education to Muslim children who  are studying in modern schools than to give modern education to  madrasa students”43

So Western education too needs to be reformed only then will it be  acceptable to the Muslim ‘Ulama.44 Though there are instances in history  when integration of traditional and modern education was attempted. It  was experimented with by the famous Arab reformer Shaikh Tahir Al  Jaziri of Syria who was the torch bearer of this trend. During the reign of  Governor Midhat Pasha, he had established a society called Al Jamia al  Khairiyah al Insha al Madaris under which he had established thirty  madaaris which helped preserve rich Islamic heritage and also taught  modern subjects to students.45 The inclusion should be like religious  subjects are taught in a school for an hour or so, instead of be allocated to  modern subjects in madaaris.46

To conclude, serious efforts need to be undertaken on multiple  levels so that madaaris are rendered vibrant. These Madaris should not  only produce more prayer leaders and madrasa administrators but leaders  who can guide the Muslims using the prevalent idiom and language. 

Notes and References

1 Prem Nath Bazaz, The History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir Cultural and  Political from earliest time to present day, Gulshan Publishers, Srinagar Kashmir, 1954,  p. 74. 

He further writes about the impact of Islam on Kashmir as, “Had Kashmir not adopted  Islam and Muslim rule in the 14th century it is difficult to say what would have  happened to it. It might have perished. Surely the powers that were generated among  the people in various branches of creative life such as learning art and architecture  would not have come to play. By coming into contact with a new culture and  civilization as a result of Muslim rule, Kashmiris extricated themselves from the morass  in which they had fallen and in which they were sinking deeper and deeper. Now they  started their life afresh”. Ibid, p. 48. 

2 There are conflicting reports about his conversion. 

3 Syed Ali Hamadani and the advancement of Arts and Crafts in Kashmir, in Hamid  Naseem Rafiabadi, Islam and Sufism in Kashmir, Sarup Book Publishers, New Delhi,  2009. 

4 S.A.A Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India, Manohar Publishers, Delhi, 1978, Vol. 1, P 295-296. 

5 Shafi Ahmad Qadri, Kashmiri Sufism, Gulshan Publishers, Srinagar, Kashmir, 2002, P 169. 

6 M Ishaq Khan, Kashmir’s Transition to Islam, The Role of Muslim Rishis, Manohar  Publishers, New Delhi, 1997. 

7 Mohiuddin n.d Islam in Kashmir, in F.M Hassnain (ed), Heritage of Kashmir, Gulshan  Publishers, Srinagar. Also there are other stories like Kalhana, the noted twelfth century  Kashmiri Brahman scholar, writes in his celebrated Rajatarangni that the Kashmiri  Hindu King Harshadeva(CE 1089-1101) employed many mlecchas (a derogatory term  he uses for Muslims) in his court and army. 

8 See Muhammad Ishaq Khan, Kashmir’s Transition to Islam, The Role of Muslim Rishis, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi, 1997. 

9 Jayalal Koul, Lal Ded, Sahitya Academy, New Delhi, 1973, p. 110.  10 Ibid, p. 104. 

11 Ibid, p. 107.

  12 After Fajr morning and Maghrib evening prayers. 

13 Nazir Qadri, Allama Muhammad Anwar Shah: The Pride of Kashmir, self published,  2015, p. 82. 

14 Syeds are the Muslims who trace their lineage to Prophet Muhammad (SAW). The  Kashmiri Syeds trace their roots mostly to central asian distant lands, maintain and take  pride in being migrants from other lands. They practice endogamy and look down upon  the native Kashmiris as converted Muslims. Pirs are local converted Kashmiris who like  Syeds distinguished themselves in Persian and Arabic learning. They attained social  status due to their learning. Unlike Syeds, Khojas and Pirs did intermarry. Khojas are  Muslim most of who are native Kashmiris but they too enjoy upper caste status, with  the distinction that they are rich and mostly a business community, unlike Syeds and  Pirs whose economy was related to religion and performing rituals. Dogras had  bestowed Jagirs and endowments to these Muslim Syeds and Khojas like Pandits as  they were inevitable for their rule. See Dr Bashir Ahmad Dabla, Directory: Castes in  Kashmir, JayKay books, Srinagar, 2012. 

15 It was a form of bonded labor that Kashmiri Muslims had to undertake for the Dogra  regime. The Dogra soldiers would select able bodied young men from a locality who  were to act as laborers and porters for the Dogra soldiers. They would carry their ration  and ammunition in the harsh winters on perilous mountainous roads and passes as far as  Gilgit and Baltistan. Most of them would perish during the journey. C.E Tyndale  Biscoe, Kashmir in Sunlight and Shade, Dilpreet Publishing House, New Delhi, 2015,  pp. 237-238. 

16 Sheikh Abdullah led N.C was aggressively intolerant of dissidents and critics. Sheikh  banished, exiled, incarcerated all members of political opposition and dissidents,  including politician and historian Prem Nath Bazaz. 

17 It was quite unusual in such a conservative, patriarchal and traditional environment for  women to work in government offices and schools. But in that sense Syeds and Pirs  were quite progressive. They even sent their daughters for higher studies in different  states of India. This progressivism was more driven by instinct of survival and staying  relevant as in the changed regimes the patronage of the Khoja class was not available to  Syeds and Pirs as earlier. So only by availing the opportunities of new education they  could survive and maintain the caste pride and social status. But not everything was  rosy particularly for the women of Syed and Pir families. They had to face their own  share of obstacles as is evident from the autobiography of Shamla Mufti, Chilman Sey  Chaman, n.d, 1998, p 9. 

18 G. Rasool & Minakshi Chopra, Education in Jammu and Kashmir: Issues and  Documents, Jay Kay books, Jammu, 2016. 

19 Prominent educationist Agha Ashraf Ali in his autobiography transcribed by Syed Habib  titled Kuch Tou Likhyey Ki Loug Kehtey Hain, Kashmir Times Publications, 2010 has  vividly depicts the problems, challenges and impediments that government had to face  while trying to spread educational network in Kashmir. 

20 After his incarceration Shiekh Abdullah patronized the Plebiscite Front that continued to  espouse the demand for implementation of right to self determination for Kashmiris.  Sheikh Abdullah did not join the Plebiscite Front as a leader or member but only

patronized it. P.F was used as a pressure group and bargaining chip against New Delhi.  After the Indira Abdullah Accord in 1975, P.F was buried and N.C led by Sheikh  Abdullah once again revived. 

21 Nazir Ahmad Dar, Religious Institutes of Kashmir, Jay kay books, Srinagar, 2015. 

22 These include but are not confined to Jamia Madinatul Uloom, Hanafia Arabic College,  Jamiatul Banaat. 

23 It is an indigenous religious institution of Kashmir. The Mirwaiz family played an  important role in the spread of education in Kashmir. They have been involved in  continuum in religious and political affairs of Kashmir. 

24 Maulana Gulam Ahmad Ahrar, Hakeem Ghulam Nabi, Syed Ali Shah Geelani all had  studied in different madrasas and colleges of India. Khakhi Muahmmad Farooq, Jamaat  e Islami Jammu wa Kashmir Ki Chand Aham Shaksiyaat, Chinar Publication Trust,  Srinagar, 2017. 

25 JeI was founded in Pathankot in 1941 in undivided India. The J&K chapter was  established after two years. 

26 Muhammad Aziz Saieb Al Mazahiri, Ladkiyun Ki Aela Deeni Taleem Ka Masla, in  Deeni Madaris Aur InKey Masail: Maqalaat e Seiminaar, Idarah Ilmiyah, Azamgarh,  India, 2007, pp. 112-113. 

27 Mareike Jule Winkelmann, Reading the minds of young Muslim women: Girls Madrasa  in India, Hope India Publications, Gurgaon, India, 2007. The ethnographic study of a  girl’s madrasa can be generalized for most of them with certain exceptions. 

28 One example of such piece of advisory religious literature is that of Bihisti Zewar written by Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi who was one of the stalwarts of Darul Uloom,  Deoband. This book was for a long time given with dowry for young brides to  understand their duties towards their husbands and family. 

29 Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi’s, Bihisti Zewar, is a glaring example of this fact. 

30 Zenab Banu, Muslim Women in Political Process in India, Shipra Publications, Delhi,  2016. 

31 Asghar Ali Engineer, The Rights of Women in Islam, New Dawn Press, New Delhi,  2004 and Amina Wadud, Qur’an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a  Woman’s Perspective, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999 and Inside the Gender  Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam, Oneworld Publications, Malaysia, 2006. 

32 Al Haj Moinuddin Ahmed, The Urgency of Ijtihad, Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi, India,  1992. 

33 Though historian-journalist like Muhammad Maqbool Sahil holds the Muslim rule in  Kashmir as alien too, as both Sultan Sadruddin, who was the first Muslim ruler of  Kashmir was a refugee of Ladakh and converted from Buddhism to Islam, while his  successor Sultan Shahabuddin Shahmiri was also not a native of Kashmir. See  Muhammad Maqbool Sahil, Tanazay e Kashmir Tarikh Key Aaiyeney Mein (The  Kashmir Tangle in Historical Perspective), Apple Books, An imprint of Watan  Publications, Srinagar, 2011. But the difference among these Muslim rulers and later  ones starting from the Mughals is that they didn’t consider Kashmir as a conquered

territory, neither did they rule it as an occupational regime. They adapted to Kashmiri  ethos, were based in Kashmir and their power centers were in Kashmir, unlike the  others, who looted the resources of Kashmir and their power centers were based  outside. They could never assimilate themselves to Kashmiri ethos neither didn’t  Kashmiris integrated with the mainstream of these occupying powers. Herein lays the  difference that Maqbool Sahil tries to overlook. 

34 Farida Abdulla Khan, Other Communities, Other Histories A Study of Muslim women  and Education in Kashmir, in Zoya Hasan & Ritu Menon (ed), In a Minority Essays on  Muslim Women in India, Oxford University Press, India, 2005 

35 For more about the efforts of Christian missionaries in spread of education in Kashmir,  See C.E Tyndale Biscoe Kashmir in Sunlight and Shade, Ali Muhamad and Sons,  Srinagar, Kashmir, 2006. 

36 See Shamla Mufti, Chilman Sey Chaman, (From Oblivion to Public Life) Urdu,  autobiography, ex-principal of Government Women’s College, Maulana Azad Road,  Srinagar, publisher, n.d, 1998. 

37 Juhi Gupta, The Future of Indian Muslim Women: Fatwa versus Feminism, Readworthy  Publication, New Delhi, 2010. 

38 Maulana Abdul Razak Iskander, Tahafuz e Madaris Aur ‘Ulama wa Taulba Sey Chand  Baatein, Maktaba Shah Waliullah, New Delhi, 2017. 

39 Omar Naseef Abdullah (ed.), Today’s Problems, Tomorrow’s Solutions, Mansell  Publishing Limited, 1988, p. 56. 

40 Maulana Sayyid Manazir Ahsan Gilani, Introduction and Translation Madiha Younas,  Outlines of a Unified Educational System for Muslims” occasional papers 90, Islamic  Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan, 2008, pp. 4-5. 

41 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Maqalat e Sir Syed, Vol 8, compiled by Maulana Muhmmad  Ismail Panipati, Majlis Taraqi e Adab, Lahore, 1991, pp. 75-76. 

42 Dr Obaidullah Fahd though has an expertise on Muslim revivalist movements but has  translated from Arabic a treatise about duality of education systems written by Dr Taha  Jabir Al Awani, Deeni Taleem: Islah wa Jamood ki Kashmakash Ka Mutala, Institute  of Objective Studies, New Delhi, 2012. 

43 Mulk wa Millat Ki Tameer Aur Dini Madaris, Idara Ilmia, Balariaganj, Azamgarh, 1994.  The above noted points are the crux of argument of most papers compiled in this book. 

44 Maulana Syed Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Nizam e Taleem: Magribi Ruhjanaat aur Iss Mey  Tabdili Ki Zaroorat, Syed Ahmad Shahid Academy, Rai Bareli, India, 2012. 

45 Uzma Naheed, Traditional Madrasas: Deoband and its Inspiration in Tahir mahmood  (ed) Politics of Minority Educational Institutions: Law and Reality in the subcontinent,  Imprint one, Gurgaon, Haryana, 2007, pp. 184-185. 

46 Maulana Syed Jalaluddin Umari, Deeni Uloom Ki Tadrees: Hindustan Key Madaris Ka  Nisab aur Iski Khasusiyat, Markazi Maktaba Islami, Publishers, Jamia Nagar, Delhi,  2009, p. 16.

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M.H.A. Sikander is Writer-Activist based in Srinagar, Kashmir

URL:    https://newageislam.com/islamic-society/living-faith-madrasa-education-kashmir--/d/130265

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