The 'Bihari Sufism': From Early Wujūdi Thought to Makhdoom Munim Pak’s Legacy
By Ghulam Rasool Dehlvi, New Age Islam
1 November 2025
Main Point:
The evolution of Sufism in Bihar represents a profound interplay between metaphysical thought, moral philosophy, and spiritual practice. Rooted in the early Wujūdiyya (Unity of Being) insights of mystics like Sheikh Aaz of Karo and Ahmad Bihari, the tradition was systematized by Makhdoom Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri, who harmonized mystical metaphysics with ethical living. The subsequent expansion of the Chishti, Naqshbandi and Suhrawardi orders transformed this intellectual current into a vibrant social and devotional movement, known as the Bihari School of Sufism. Its culmination came with Makhdoom Shah Munim Pak, whose works—Mukashifāt, Ilhāmāt, and Mushāhidāt-e-Munimī—represent the mature expression of Bihari Wujūdiyya thought. Today, under the custodianship of Prof. Shamim Munemi, the Khanqah Munemia continues to preserve this living legacy, embodying an inclusive, humane, and intellectually grounded Sufi vision that upholds love, tolerance, and unity as the essence of spiritual realization......
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This author recently embarked upon a spiritual voyage to Bihar, visiting several eminent Sufi shrines in Patna City and other regions of the state, culminating at the Khanqah of Makhdoom Shah Munim Pak at Meetan Ghat in Patna Sharif—reverentially known as Qadam Rasool.
Here, highly valuable insights were shared by Prof. Syed Shamim Munemi Saheb, the Sajjada Nashin (hereditary custodian) of the Khanqah Munemia, whose stewardship continues to preserve the saint’s intellectual and spiritual legacy.
The historical trajectory of Sufism in Bihar exemplifies a dynamic confluence of metaphysical speculation, moral philosophy, and devotional praxis. From the early Wujūdī mystics such as Sheikh Aaz of Karo and Ahmad Bihari, who endeavoured to harmonize philosophical inquiry with religious faith, to the later Chishti luminaries like Makhdoom Shah Munim Pak of Patna, the region nurtured a sustained efflorescence of mystical thought grounded in love, tolerance, and service to humanity.
This article traces the intellectual and spiritual continuum of what may be termed the “Sufi Circuit” of Bihar—its inception within the Wujūdiyya (Unity of Being) tradition, its consolidation through the Chishti and Suhrawardi orders, and its mature expression in the inclusive and ethically oriented spirituality of Makhdoom Shah Munim Pak.
Sufism as the Spiritual Cartography of Bihar
Bihar occupies a unique place in the spiritual geography of India. From ancient Buddhist and Jain monastic centres such as Nalanda and Vaishali to medieval Sufi Khanqahs, the land has long been a crucible of philosophical and mystical exchange. By the time Islam reached this region, the intellectual climate was already fertile for metaphysical inquiry and contemplative traditions. The early Muslim mystics of Bihar thus found a congenial environment for the transmission of Sufi thought, which gradually evolved into a distinct regional expression—what later scholars have termed the Bihari School of Sufism.
Early Wajudia Influences: The Doctrine of “Hama Oast”
The earliest known Bihari Sufis belonged to the Wajudia School, upholding the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujūd—the Unity of Being. They interpreted the divine reality as all-encompassing, summarized in the Persian phrase “Hama Oast” (“Everything is He”). Figures such as Sheikh Aaz of Karo (Gaya) and Ahmad Bihari emerged as pioneers of this thought. Their attempts to harmonize religious law with philosophical speculation represented a bold spiritual humanism.
However, such metaphysical positions provoked resistance from orthodox scholars. As recorded by H. Shuaiv, Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq, under the influence of conservative theologians, ordered both Sheikh Aaz and Ahmad Bihari to be executed. Despite their persecution, these mystics left an indelible mark on the intellectual heritage of Bihar, foreshadowing the later synthesis between faith and reason achieved by the great Chishti masters.
Institutional Growth: The Chishti and Suhrawardi Orders
Long before the Turkish conquest, Sufism had already reached Bihar and its neighbouring regions. The earliest adherents belonged to the Chishti and Suhrawardi orders. The Chishtis, in particular, became synonymous with the democratization of spirituality, emphasizing music (Sama‘), love (Ishq), and service (Khidmat).
Prominent early representatives included Pir Shahab-ud-Din Jagjot of Jethuli, Hazrat Badr-i-Alam of Choti Dargah, Mir Fazlullah Gosain of Daira, Farid-ud-Din Tawaila Bux of Chandpura, Ahmad Isa Taj of Bhaisaur, Ataullah Baghadli of Mir Daad, and Syed Sadr-ud-Din Zahidi—all associated with Bihar Sharif (Nalanda), the heartland of the region’s Sufi activity. These saints cultivated khānqāhs that doubled as centres of learning and charity, welcoming people across religious and social boundaries.
The neighbouring district of Saran also emerged as a vital node in this Sufi network. Saints like Mir Zahi Madariad Sarani of Sepaha, Abdul Malik of Ushri, and Syed Hasan of Hasanpura represented a blend of scholastic depth and mystical devotion. Though some Sufi orders, such as the Shuttasiyya, later declined, they once exercised considerable moral and cultural influence over the people of Bihar. The Madariya order, led by Syed Jamal-ud-Din Madar of Makanpur, also had a lasting presence, as attested by his mausoleum at Hilsa.
The Emergence of Makhdoom Shah Munim Pak
Into this rich spiritual landscape entered Makhdoom Shah Munim Pak Chishti (d. c. 1690 CE), one of the most luminous figures of late Mughal Bihar. Born in the Naqshbandiyya Abul Olaiya tradition, he became renowned for his synthesis of Shari‘ah (Islamic law) and Tariqah (the spiritual path). His Khānqāh at Patna City (Kadam Sharif) evolved into a beacon of spiritual instruction, ethical discipline, and social service.
Makhdoom Munim Pak’s thought reflected the mature Sufi ethos: love as the essence of religion, humility as the foundation of knowledge, and service as the highest form of worship. His teachings bridged metaphysical contemplation with everyday moral conduct, thereby transforming Sufi spirituality from a purely esoteric pursuit into a social ethic of compassion.
He was part of a distinguished lineage of Bihari Sufis that included Makhdoom Yahya Maneri and Makhdoom Sharfuddin Ahmed Yahya Maneri (Makhdum-ul-Mulk). Like them, Munim Pak emphasized the Interiorisation of divine awareness through remembrance (zikr), meditation (Muraqabah), and active service (Khidmat al-Khalq). His inclusive approach attracted seekers not only from Muslim circles but also from Hindu and Buddhist backgrounds, perpetuating the Chishti principle of universal love.
Intellectual and Social Impact
Under Makhdoom Munim Pak’s guidance, Patna became a vibrant centre of spiritual education and intercultural dialogue. His disciples established numerous sub-khānqāhs across Bihar and Bengal, reinforcing the province’s identity as a crucible of Indo-Islamic mysticism.
The Munimiyya branch of the Chishti Silsila, though less formally institutionalized than the Maneri or Sabiri lines, contributed to a moral rejuvenation of society during a period of political decline. His spiritual influence extended even to Mughal administrators and regional elites, many of whom sought his counsel on ethical governance and justice—an echo of the Chishti role as moral guardians within the polity.
The Sufi Circuit as a Living Continuum
The concept of a “Sufi Circuit” in Bihar should not be understood merely as a geographic trail of shrines, but as a living continuum of spiritual energy. From the Wajudi martyrs of Gaya to the Chishti saints of Bihar Sharif, Saran, and Patna, this circuit embodies a historical dialogue between philosophy and piety, intellect and emotion, transcendence and social engagement.
Makhdoom Munim Pak, in this continuum, stands as a culmination rather than a departure. He inherited the metaphysical daring of the early Wajudi thinkers, the devotional ecstasy of the Chishtis, and the social pragmatism of the Suhrawardis—integrating them into a coherent Sufi ethic grounded in compassion, humility, and universal service.
His seminal works:
Munim Pak authored three seminal books during his stay in Delhi. These three of his books Mukashifat-e-Munemi, Ilhamat-e-Munemi and Mushahidat-e-Munemi enjoy a distinguished position in the world of spiritual writing. These books written in 1119 Hijri, 1120 Hijri and 1123 Hijri (1707 CE, 1708 CE and 1711 CE) respectively are unique on the basis of their subjects and importance.
In these books Hazrat Munim Pak has given an account of those experiments and experiences that he observed during the process of his spiritual advancement. Normally saints do not reveal these things before all but he discussed these subtle and deep-seated realities in a figurative form in his aesthetic and literary Persian which is matchless.
The manuscripts of Ilhamat-e-Munemi and Mukashifat-e-Munemi are available at Khuda Bakhsh Library, Patna and many other libraries of the subcontinent. Comparatively, the manuscripts of Mushahadat-e-Munemi are not so easily available. But the manuscripts of these books are available at the library of Khanqah-e-Munemia at Meetan Ghat in Patna City.
Besides the manuscripts of his other two hand-written books are also available here. His enthusiasm and involvement in the promotion of knowledge lasted till his life. That is why, even at the age of eighty years when he came to Patna from Delhi, he somehow managed to spare time to teach the students of higher education despite his exceptionally busy spiritual schedule.
Thus, the story of Sufism in Bihar, from Sheikh Aaz to Makhdoom Munim Pak, encapsulates the evolution of Islamic spirituality in the Indian context—from metaphysical speculation to social transformation. The Sufi Circuit of Bihar symbolizes an enduring tradition of intellectual openness and spiritual inclusivity that continues to inspire contemporary seekers.
Makhdoom Munim Pak’s Khānqāh at Patna Sharif (Kadam Rasool) remains a living testament to this heritage—a space where divine love transcends ritual boundaries and where the human heart remains the ultimate locus of divine presence. In tracing this lineage, one perceives that the spirit of “Hama Oast”—Everything is He—which once cost Sheikh Aaz and Ahmad Bihari their lives, ultimately found its fullest, most compassionate expression in the Chishti ideal of Munim Pak: Sulṭānat Ba Dil-Hāst, Na Ba Khāk-Hā — “The true kingdom is over hearts, not over lands.”
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Contributing author at New Age Islam, Ghulam Rasool Dehlvi is writer and scholar of Indian Sufism, interfaith ethics, and the spiritual history of Islam in South Asia. His latest book is "Ishq Sufiyana: Untold Stories of Divine Love".
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