By
Akshay Chavan
July 29th
2020
Just
outside the city of Ghazni in Afghanistan is the Buddhist site of Tapa Sardar
overlooking the Dasht-i Manara plain along the ancient ‘Southern Route’.
On a hillock are the remains of a Kushana-era (2-3rd century CE) monastery
complex that was once known as ‘Kanika maharaja vihara’ or ‘the temple of the
Great King Kanishka’. Also found here was a colossal clay image of Goddess
Durga, which shone an interesting spotlight on the pre-Islamic, Hindu heritage
of Afghanistan.
For
centuries, Afghanistan was at the crossroads between India, Persia and China,
and this created a unique confluence of rich material culture. While Buddhism
thrived under the Kushana Empire, the ‘Hindu Shahi’ rulers of Kabul and Ghazni
were great patrons of Hinduism. The ‘Hindu Shahis’ (850–1026 CE) were two
dynasties that held sway over the Kabul Valley (Northeastern Afghanistan) and
Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan), during the early medieval period. While these
kings referred to themselves as ‘Shahis’, the Arabs and Turks referred to them
as ‘Hindu Shahis’ as they practised Hinduism. The Hindu Shahis built a large
number of temples and religious monuments in the Kabul valley and in the
Gandharan region. Sadly, decades of wars and religious fanaticism has meant
that this heritage has all but been destroyed. Even today, we know very little
of the Hindu Shahis, the last Hindu rulers of Afghanistan.
Braving
wars and terrorist threats, one organisation that has been at the forefront in
studying Afghanistan’s pre-Islamic and early Islamic history is the Italian
Archaeological Mission to Afghanistan, currently administrated by the ISMEO
(International Mediterranean and Oriental Studies Association) and closely
associated with the University of Naples “L’Orientale”. It was the Mission which
first excavated Tapa Sardar in the 1960s and ‘70s, briefly resuming it work in
2003. Facing grave threats, the Mission even contributed to the establishment
of a new Museum in Ghazni in 2013, which was sadly destroyed in a bomb attack
the following years.
I spoke to Dr
Anna Filigenzi, the head of the Italian Archaeological Mission to Afghanistan
and a member of the Italian Archaeological Mission to Pakistan. Dr
Filigenzi spoke about the significance of the Tapa Sardar site, the forgotten
Hindu Shahi dynasty, as well as the important role played by the Mission in the
region since the 1960s.
The site of Tapa Sardar as seen from the plains|Italian Archaeological Mission
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What
does the site of Tapa Sardar reveal to us about the pre-Islamic history of Afghanistan?
Dr
Filigenzi: Tapa
Sardar seems to have enjoyed great prestige throughout its entire lifespan.
This is clearly and unmistakably evidenced by its exceptionally prominent
position with respect to a vast landscape, the high level of its architectures
and decorations and by certain features of its iconographic programmes, as the
one mentioned above.
According
to an inscription found on a pot at the site, Tapa Sardar was a royal Kushan
foundation known as the ‘Kanika maharaja vihara’ (the temple of the Great King
Kanishka). No doubt, the site remained a reference point for the ruling élites
which followed one another and was probably used for ceremonies of great
political relevance. The large-scale and grandiose renovation in the 7th/8th
century CE following a devastating fire (we have no direct evidence that it was
caused by an Arab incursion in the second half of the 7th century, although
this might be possible) bear witness to the vital role that Buddhism continued
to play in the area long after Islam started advancing.
The site
certainly benefited from generous political patronage, which made it possible
for it to avail the services of skilled and creative workshops. Thus, we may
say that the site gives us the double opportunity to observe the development
and changes of artistic trends from a privileged and long-lasting centre of
activity and, at the same time, to reconsider outdated narratives about the
post-Kushan period.
Although
the history of the Huns and their Shahi successors is still a matter of debate,
it is clear that it did not mark a period of cultural regression. As
archaeology tells us, Buddhist art enjoyed under post-Kushan dynasties a period
of renovated vigour and splendour. We start perceiving now the legacy left by
artistic forms created during this period to Himalayan art, for instance. I am
sure that future research will shed more light on such important phenomena of
cultural continuity, opening new windows into the late pre-Islamic period and
its innovative contribution to trans-regional histories.
The topographic plan of the site|Italian Archaeological Mission
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Have
there been discoveries at Tapa Sardar that tell us about its connections with
other Kushana period sites such as Mes Aynak, Begram and sites in South Asia?
Dr Filigenzi: Actually, at Tapa Sardar (as
elsewhere) the Kushan period is only partially documented due to later
renovations which obliterated the earliest phases. However, with regard to
later periods, several points of contacts have been detected among different sites
such as Tapa Sardar, Tepe Narenj, Mes Aynak, just to speak of newly excavated
sites.
Leaving
apart generic (and expectable) affinities, resulting from shared cultural and
visual codes, mention can be made of precise and significant coincidences. For
instance, at both Tapa Sardar and Tepe Narenj, in the 8th century ca., there
were fire altars in secluded rooms, and traces of a colossal image of Durga
killing the buffalo were also found at Mes Aynak. Furthermore, Mes Aynak
yielded specimens of exactly the same moulded decorations as Tapa Sardar.
Hopefully, these first pieces of evidence will lay the groundwork for new
research agendas about the circulation of artistic models and the mobility of
artisans.
Detail of the main cultic
image|Italian Archaeological Mission
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While
the spread of Buddhism in Afghanistan has been studied and is well known, what
do we know of the worship of Hindu deities such as Durga, Ganesha and Vishnu in
pre-Islamic Afghanistan?
Dr
Filigenzi: Buddhism
seems to have been not only the hegemonic religious culture in pre-Islamic
Afghanistan, but also in the history of our field, a major focus of attention.
Under such circumstances, we risk to underrate other realities, especially with
regard to the period that, by and large, we can define ‘Shahi’. The Chinese
pilgrim Xuanzang, who visited Afghanistan in the early 7th century CE, while
speaking of Kapisa in the north-eastern part of the country, mentions the
existence of a number of non-Buddhist temples and describes various types of
ascetics: naked (most probably Jaina) and smeared with ashes, or wearing a
chaplet of skulls on the head (most probably Shaiva).
Material
evidence is still scarce and scattered but of such a nature that dedicated
investigations would certainly reveal much more. For the time being, we only
know a few marble sculptures representing Hindu gods from Afghanistan (Surya,
Umamaheshvara, Ganesha, Durga) but also a Surya temple at Khair Khana. Hindu
iconography was well known in pre-Islamic Afghanistan and it was adopted by
Buddhism as well. The Durga from Tapa Sardar is a telling case in point.
Interestingly, although with differences imposed by the use of different media,
the colossal clay image of Durga from Tapa Sardar follows the same model as the
more or less coeval marble Durga from Gardez.
Obviously,
individual marble statues could come from any context, but the recent discovery
of a Hindu temple at Barikot (Swat, Pakistan) makes us realistically expect
similar discoveries in future in both areas. Unfortunately, the present
situation in Afghanistan does not allow intensive archaeological activities,
but, while waiting a better future for Afghanistan (for the country and its
people first, and not only for archaeology), we can meanwhile refine our plans
and methods and re-formulate our research questions in a more inclusive way.
Head of bejewelled Buddha from chapel|Italian Archaeological Mission
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Based on
the available archaeological evidence, what do we know of the Shahi dynasty of
Kabulistan and Zabulistan? Why is there so little material available on them?
Dr
Filigenzi:
Actually, we should start assembling all available evidence from the Shahi
levels of excavated sites across Afghanistan and Pakistan. We might discover
neglected information and, in any case, a clearer picture would probably
emerge. For the time being, let’s say that material evidence supports the vague
notions provided by the scarce (and later) written sources about the presence
of ‘Shahi’ dynasties (and connected local rulers) across Kabulistan, Zabulistan
and areas of modern-day Pakistan. We are progressing slowly, but significantly.
As
mentioned before, we know for sure, by now, that the period between the fall of
the Kushan Empire and the establishment of Islam was not a ‘dark age’. The
archaeological evidence speaks quite clearly. However, one may say that our
historical knowledge is under construction. As for the scarcity of available
material, I will try to explain this in more detail below.
The Great Stupa at the south-east corner|Italian Archaeological Mission
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In your
opinion, which is the most important archaeological site with respect to the
Shahi dynasty and why?
Dr
Filigenzi: I cannot
mention a site which is the most important in absolute terms. If we expect to
find something ‘purely’ or ‘unmistakably’ Shahi, in most cases our attempts
will predictably remain frustrated. Several sites yielded evidence that is
chronologically and culturally related to the Shahi period (coins especially,
but also architectural remains and art pieces). Let’s start from this, and
let’s forget, for the time being, labels such as absolutely Buddhist or
absolutely Brahmanical to define this or that period and dynastic line.
Real life
was certainly more complicated and nuanced. I would just mention two sites in
Swat (i.e. the ancient Uddiyana, celebrated as one of the holiest lands of
Buddhism, in modern-day Pakistan): Barikot and Tindo Dag. At Barikot, an
imposing and most visible Brahmanical temple was built in the 7th century CE on
the hilltop, in the period corresponding to the Turki Shahi’s rule. On the
slope of the same hill, the remains of enigmatic buildings, dated to the Hindu
Shahi period, were discovered. Most probably, they were religious in nature,
but until further comparable evidence surfaces, we will not be able to identify
their specific function and affiliation. If one day we will discover that they
were neither Buddhist nor Brahmanical, I would not be so much disconcerted.
Let’s keep an open mind about what we do not know or recognise yet.
As for
Tindo Dag, a small and deep cave with a relief (to be dated to the 7th/8th
century CE) depicting Surya and his retinue at the entrance, echoes a tale
reported by al-Biruni about the new birth from the rock simulated in Kabul by
the Turki Shahi Barhatakin, which we can interpret as a ritual act suggesting a
homology between the king and the rising sun.
But what
about Buddhism in Swat at that time? Was it declining? Maybe, or maybe not.
Probably, its hegemony was challenged like never before by a raise of
Brahmanism, and still, in the same period, the region witnessed the blooming of
new and much influential trends of proto-Vajrayanic Buddhist art. That is to
say that the Shahi political and cultural presence could hardly be attested by
radical changes but has to be carefully sought within apparently unbroken
continuity.
Restoration of the Durga head at the Kabul Museum; deconstruction of the
Durga image Italian Archaeological Mission
-----
What do
you think of the current research on the Shahi dynasty? Do you think we shall
discover more in the next few years?
Dr
Filigenzi:
Fortunately, the last decades marked substantial progress thanks to the
combined efforts of archaeologists, art historians, numismatists and
historiographers. With regard to Kabulistan and Zabulistan, I would like to
mention the works by Shoshin Kuwayama, Giovanni Verardi, Michael Alram and
Minoru Inaba, which started sharpening the focus, leading to ever clearer
research questions.
Thanks to
the discoveries made by the Italian Archaeological Mission to Pakistan, a more
defined picture of the Shahi period began to emerge in Pakistan as well. The
Austrian FWF research project ‘Cultural Formation and Transformation: Shahi
Buddhist Art and Architecture from Afghanistan to the West Tibetan Frontier at
the Dawn of the Islamic Era’ (2018-2021), led by Deborah Klimburg-Salter, with
Michael Alram as National Research Partner, is a positive sign of how things
are moving forward.
Very often,
the problem is the lack of direct written sources, which not only deprives
studies of a useful tool of investigation but, a widespread academic bias
towards literacy also it makes difficult for non-text-based histories to get
recognition. This makes it all the more important to increase the collection of
material evidence and apply to it network analysis. However, archaeological
data relevant to the study of this period, for their part, are not easy to
acquire, due to different reasons.
As for Buddhist
settlements, for instance, we have a better picture of the phases prior to the
9th century CE. The very last phases are instead insufficiently witnessed,
either because of a general impoverishment of the Buddhist foundations or
because they were directly affected by abandonment and decay. Besides, early
Islamic buildings of great symbolic value might have willingly obliterated
Shahi buildings of equivalent importance.
This seems
to be the case, for instance, with the Ghaznavid mosque at Rajagira, the
earliest mosque in Northern Pakistan and one of the earliest in the whole
country. As for civil settlements, our knowledge is even more limited, often
because of phenomena of continuity. In urban centres such as Kabul, the old
town is obliterated by the modern one and archaeological excavations are
virtually impossible. Besides, the urban segment must have constituted a low –
although influential – percentage of the ancient population, but we know
practically nothing about rural settlements and their economic and cultural
contribution to the history of the country.
However, as
I said before, to prepare future advancements, we must start formulating new
and original research questions based on a thorough assessment of what we have.
As experience teaches, what we have can say much of what we lack and of how
should we proceed.
Sculptures of a donor couple discovered at Tepe Narenj| Italian
Archaeological Mission
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Can you
tell us about the Italian Archaeological Mission to Afghanistan, its work and its
aims?
Dr
Filigenzi: The
Italian Archaeological Mission has been operating in the country since 1957. It
was founded by Giuseppe Tucci, the then president of IsMEO (Italian Institute
for Middle and Far Eastern Studies), in the framework of a broader research
programme which encompassed different areas, periods and cultures of Asia and
converged in the IsMEO Centre for Studies and Archaeological Excavations in
Asia.
Since the
very beginning, the Mission’s activities were thus framed within a
comprehensive scientific pursuit and were fully committed to a compliance with
principles far ahead of the times. These were aimed, as stated in the official
IsMEO bulletin, at ‘the solution of historical, philological, epigraphical,
religious and artistic nature in a unitary conception of the culture of a
people’ and at establishing correct practices, such as application of rigorous
stratigraphic criteria, scrupulous documentation, use of the most appropriate
technical aids, technological approach to the analysis and study of all types
of finds, precise sense of responsibility for the preservation of monuments and
artefacts discovered, and commitment towards processing and publishing the
results of the Mission’s excavation reports and studies.
In
accordance with these principles, the Mission started excavating and surveying
both pre-Islamic and Islamic sites in the area of Ghazni, shedding light on
previously unknown aspects of Afghanistan’s cultural history and its central
role in creating and spreading artistic models throughout Asia.
Due to
political events, the Mission suspended its field activities at the end of the
1970s and returned to Afghanistan in 2002. It soon resumed field work in
Ghazni, its traditional area of activity, but in 2005, due to the continuing
deterioration of the overall security situation, field work had to be suspended
once again. However, thanks to specific agreements with the Archaeology
Institute of Afghanistan and in a concerted effort with the Italian Foreign
Ministry and the Italian Embassy in Kabul, we are presently supporting local
excavation programmes.
In
particular, two important Buddhist sites in the area of Kabul, Tepe Narenj and
Qol-e Tut, were excavated in recent years under the aegis of the Archaeology
Institute of Afghanistan and the field direction of Dr Zafar Paiman, with the
financial and scientific assistance of the Mission.
In spite of
the vicissitudes of history, studies went ahead uninterrupted and resulted in
scientific publications based on both pre-conflict documentations and the data
acquired from newly excavated sites.
Dr Anna Filigenzi
-----
I would
like to stress here the importance of correct documentation procedures.
Professor Roberta Giunta (the deputy director of the Mission and responsible
for the Islamic sector) and I can be said to represent a new generation of
scholars who first visited Afghanistan on the occasion of the post-conflict
return to the country. However, our training could benefit from the careful
documentation collected and filed by our predecessors, which, even after a long
break in field activities, could take the form of scientific publications.
In this
respect, worth mentioning are the volumes about the Islamic funerary
inscription from Ghazni and the Buddhist caves of Jaghuri, by R Giunta and G
Verardi, respectively, both published in the early 2000s and based exactly on
the documentation collected during the 1950s through the late 1970s.
Thanks to
the rigorous application of the principles mentioned above, it has also been
possible, in recent years, to transfer the old analogue documentation onto
digital support and build an online archive which fosters knowledge creation
and sharing: http://ghazni.bradypus.net/
To sum up,
I would say that the Mission’s efforts have always been invested not only in
the discovery and physical conservation of artefacts, but also in the
preservation and interpretation of their intangible value, through
documentation, study and dissemination. The difficult post-conflict situation
in Afghanistan and the consequent risk of cultural isolation of the country
make these efforts more crucial than ever.
All
images are courtesy of Italian Archaeological Mission to Afghanistan
Original
Headline: Uncovering Afghanistan’s Pre-Islamic Past
Source: The Live History of India
URL: https://newageislam.com/interview/hindu-shahis-afghanistan’s-pre-islamic/d/122666